Vol 17, Educational Series, price One Shilling. 

A GRAMMAR 

OF 

THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

CONTAINING 

COMPLETE AND CONCISE RULES 

ON THE 

GENDEES OF EEENCH NOUNS. 



By G. L. STRAUSS, Ph. Dr. 

Professor and Translator of Languages. 
Formerly Lecturer on French Literature at Besaneon. 



LOHDOK; JOHN WEALE. 1853. 



I LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 8 

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A GRAMMAR 



THE FRENCH LANGUAGE, 



CONTAINING 



COMPLETE AND CONCISE RULES ON 



THE GENDEBS OE FEENCH NOUNS. 



By G. L. STRAUSS, Ph. Dr., 

Professor and Translator of Languages. 
Formerly Lecturer on French Literature at Besancon. 




LONDON : 
JOHN WEALE, 59, HIGH HOLBOEN. 

* 1853. 






LONDON : 

BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS, 



PREFACE. 



The " Grammar " of a language may be defined as a 
systematically and methodically arranged collection of the 
rules which govern the proper and correct mode of speaking 
and writing it. Even an elementary Grammar must, to a 
certain extent, answer this definition, or it is not what it 
professes to be. 

It is upon this view of the subject that I have proceeded in 
the compilation and composition of the present work ; — and I 
think, I may safely assert that, though from the restricted 
limits, and the professedly elementary nature of the book, I 
have been compelled to confine myself, in a measure, to mere 
occasional and fragmentary remarks on the grammatical 
mechanism and the syntactic construction of the French 
language, yet, in so far as the etymological branch of Grammar 
is concerned, no rule of any importance has been omitted'; and 
that the student when he has occasion to consult this work, 
will rarely find himself disappointed in obtaining the desired 
information. 

Noel and Chapsal's truly classical grammar of the French 
language has supplied the general plan for the present work. 
I have consulted also the " Grammaire des Grammaires" 
Levizacs and Brasseur's English-French Grammars, and 
Arnold's most excellent " First French Book." In the section 
on the Gender, I have largely drawn from Prideaux's equally 
concise and complete treatise on that important branch of 
French grammar. 



CONTENTS. 



Introduction. — The Alphabet, 1. — Pronunciation, 3. — Orthography, 13. 

Chap. I. — The article, 23. — The substantive, 30. 

Chap. II. — Thequalificative adjective, 50. — The determinative adjective, 63 

Chap. III. — The numerals, 70. 

Chap. IV. — The personal pronouns, 75 The demonstrative pronouns, 85. 

— The possessive pronouns, 89. — The relative pronouns, 90. 

Chap. V. — The Verb : — Introductory Kemarks, 100. — Conjugation of the 
verbs, 102. — Avoir, 104. — Etre, 106. •*— First conjugation, 108. — 
Second conjugation, 113. — Third conjugation, 119. — Fourth con- 
jugation, 126. — Passive voice of transitive verbs, 136. — Conjuga- 
tion of pronominal verbs, 136. — Interrogative and negative forms 
of conjugation, 139. — Concord of the verb with its subject, 142. 
— Government of the verb, 145. — Use of the tenses, 147. — The 
subjunctive mode, 148 — The infinitive mode, 150. 

Chap. VI. — The participle present, 151. — The participle past, 152. 

Chap. VII. — The adverb, 157. — The preposition, 158. — The conjunction; 
161.— The interjection, 163. 



GRAMMAR 

OF 

THE FEENCH LANGUAGE. 



INTBODUCTIOJST. 



THE ALPHABET. 



The French. Alphabet consists of the following twenty-five 
letters : — 

NAME. PRONOUNCED. 



A 


a 


Ah 


like a in far. 


B 


b 


Bey 


■ 


C 

33 


c 
d 


CeyorSey 
Dey 


yey as in they. 


E 


e 


Ey 




F 


f 


Ef 




G 


g 


Jey 


j like s in pleasure, or z in azure, ey as in they. 


H 


h 


Ash 




I 


i 


E 




J 


j 


Jee 


j like s in pleasure, or z in azure. 


K 


k 


Kah 


like ca in calf. 


L 


1 


El 




M 


m 


Em 




N 


n 


En 















P 


P 


Pey 


ey as in they. 


Q 


q 


Kii* 




R 


r 


Err 


. 


S 


s 


Ess 




T 


t 


Tey 


ey as in they. 


U 


u 


U* 




V 


V 


Vey 


ey as in they. 


X 


X 


Ix 


as in rix-dollar. 


Y 


y 


E grec 




Z 


z 


Zed 





* The English language has no sounds corresponding to the French 
u and eu; German letters — the compound vowels u and o, which correspond 
respectively to the French u and eu — have, therefore, been pressed into 
the service here, to avoid leaving any gap in the names and sounds of the 
letters of the French alphabet. 

B 



I A GRAMMAR OP THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

Six of these letters are vowels : a, e, i, o, u, and y ; the 
remaining nineteen are consonants. 

'Besides the sonnds expressed by the vowels a, e, i (y), o, and 
u, there are several other simple sounds in French, which are 
represented by certain combinations of letters. Such combi- 
nations are, — 

1. The compound vowels : ai, eu (oe, oeu), and ou. 



Ai 
Eu. 
Ou 



PRONOUNCED. 

ay as in may 

o* 

oo as in room. 



2. The so-called nasal vowels : an (en, am, em), in (ion, yn : 
ym, ein, ain, aim), on (om), and un (um). 

PRONOUNCED. 

A n ang as in anguish. 

In eng or eing, as eng in length. 

On ong or ongue, as in long and tongue. 

Un ung, somewhat between the sound eng 

in length, and ung in rung. 

The sound o is expressed also by au and eau. 

To the preceding sounds we have still to add the diphthongs, 
which are formed in French by the combination of the vowels 
i, o, ou, and u, with some other vowel. 

The principal diphthongs are, — 







PRONOUNCED. 




ia 


diacre 


de-akkre 


deacon. 


iai 


hiais 


be-ay 


slope. 


ian 


viande 


ve-ang'd 


meat. 


iau 


miauler 


me-oley (ey as in they) 


to mew. 




rtiel 


ce-ell 


heaven. 


ie 


< p^erre 


pe-ayrr 


stone. 




[pied 


pe-ey 


foot. 


ie 


amitie 


am-e-te-ey (ey as in they) 


friendship. 


ie 


biere 


be-ayre 


beer. 




J audience 
\ lien 


o-de-angs 


audience. 


ten 


le-eng 


tie. 


ieu 


lieu 


le-o* 


place. 


io 


vzolon 


ve-olong 


violin. 


ion 


passport 


pass-e-ong 


passion. 


iou 


chiouvme 


she-urm 


a galley's crew. 


iu 


relmre 


rel-e-iir * (e very short) 


binding. 


oe 


moelle 


mo-ell 


marrow. 


oif 


\oi 


lo-a (a as in fat) 


law. 



* See note, page 1. 
f In the word roide, stiff, stubborn, the oi is sounded ay, except in the 
elevated and poetic style, where it is pronounced oa (ro-ad). 



uai 


nuaison 


nan 


nuance 


ue 


nuee 


uen 


influence 


ui 


suite 



PRONUNCIATION. 3 

PRONOUNCED. 

oin besoin bez-o-eng want, need. 

oua ouate hwat (a as in far) wadding. 

ouai ouaicne hwaysh track of a ship. 

ouan Chouan shoo-ang Chouan 

« , f foo-ay (the oo somewhat shorter 1 „ -. • 

tomb | (^n in too) } awhl P- 

own "Rouen between Eoo-ang and Hwang a city in Normandy. 

oui oui whee yes. 

u -u - f bab-oo-eng (the oo somewhat 1 , , 

tabotttn • shorter than in too) } baboon. 

{niiazhe * (a a little shorter than | , -, 

in far ;zh like z in awe) j cloud 
niiayzong * a trade wind, 

niiangs * shade, 

niiey* (ey as in they) cloud, swarm, 

engfmangs* influence, 

sveet retinue. 

T . f between Zhveng and Zhu-eng (zh \ T 

utn Jum < ,,, ° x ° v >June. 

like z in azure) J 

'Pronunciation of the Letters. 

The attempt which has been made in the preceding paragraph 
to imitate the French sounds by combinations of English 
letters, has not been made so much for the purpose of con- 
veying a notion of French pronunciation, but rather with a 
view to show the extreme difficulty, if not positive impracti- 
cability, of the task. The pronunciation of the French language 
must be acquired by the ear ; a few lessons from a good master, 
or a short residence in the country, will benefit the pupil more 
in this respect than could be accomplished by any imitative 
writing of sounds, however so ingeniously contrived. Never- 
theless, considering that there are many students of French 
restricted in a measure to self-teaching, we shall endeavour 
here to give as ample rules on the pronunciation of that tongue, 
as the necessarily confined limits of an elementary work like 
the present will permit. 

Pronunciation of tlie Vowels. 
A. 
A is pronounced either long or short. The long a sounds like 
a in far : pkte, dough. The short a sounds like a in fat : p&tte, 
paw. 

The a is not sounded in aout, August ; aoriste, aorist ; Saone, 
a river in France ; t# on, gad-fly ; which are pronounced as if they 
were written respectively out, oriste, S6ne } ton, 

* See note, page 1. 

b2 



4 A GRAMMAR OF THE TRENCH LANGUAGE. 

E. 

E has three principal sounds, viz., the close or acute, the broad 
or grave, and the mute. 

The close or acute e resembles the English ey in they : amenite, 
pleasantness, sweetness of temper ; rocher, rock ; nez, nose. 

The broad or grave sound of the e is either long or short ; the 
long broad e sounds like the English ay in nay ; pere, father ; 
succhs, success ; tete, head. The short broad e resembles the 
English e in fell : il appelle, he calls. 

The mute e is either simply dull and scarcely audible, or 
absolutely still. In the former case, it resembles the e in 
battery : me, me ; de, of ; degre, degree ; livre, book ; table, table. 
The e is absolutely still in paiement, payment \jeprie, I pray ;je 
prierai, I shall pray, &c. ; and at the end of words when it is 
preceded by a vowel or a simple consonant ; boule, bowl, ball ; 
ecole, school; rue, street; vie, life^'o^e, joy; roue, wheel, &c. 
The e is silent also in Caen, a town in Normandy. The mute e 
is used sometimes to soften the sound of the g before a, o, it, 
ai, ou, oi. 

I. 

I is pronounced either long or short. In the former case 
it sounds like the English ee in deer, or like the i in oblique, 
machine : He, island ; epitre, epistle. The sound of the short i 
resembles the English i in his, Jig : emissaire, emissary. 

I is not sounded in oignon, onion ; mo\gnon, stump ; poignard, 
dagger; poignee, handful, handle of a sword, and in Michel 
Montaigne, which name is pronounced as if it were written 
Montagne. 

(AU, EAU). 

is either long or short. In the former case it sounds like 
the English o in rose, bone, stone : motion, motion ; cote, coast, 
rib; et&u, vice (smith's) ; tuyau, pipe, tube ; morcesiu, bit, morsel ; 
nouvesm, new, novel. In the latter it sounds like the English 
o in not; botte, boot ; hotte, dorser, basket. 

The o does not sound mfaon, fawn ; Laon, a city in France ; 
paon, peacock. 

U. 

U is either long, as in flute, flute ; or short, as in Ixxbte, 
struggle. It has already been stated that the English language 
has no sound corresponding to the French u. In club it is 
sounded by many like o. 

U is used sometimes to harden the sound of the g before e 
and i, in which case it is not sounded except in aiguiser, to 
sharpen; aigmllon, sting; sangxxinaire ; and Guise, proper name. 



PRONUNCIATION. 5 

Y. 

This letter stands either for one i or for two i's. For one i 
at the commencement and at the end of words : yacht, dey ; and 
in the middle of words after a consonant : style, symetrie ; — for 
two *'s in the middle of words after a vowel: pays, country; 
moyen, means ; which are pronounced as if written j£>aws, moi-ien. 

AI (EI) 
Is pronounced mostly like the English ay in may: aide, help ; 
haine, hatred; laine, wool (ei has the same sound in baleine, 
whale ; haleine, breath). In some words, however, it is sounded 
more like the acute French e, or English ey, as in they : aigu, 
sharp ; aiguille, needle ; this latter sound it has more particu- 
larly in the first person singular of the future tense of verbs in 
general, and in the definite tense of verbs of the first conjuga- 
tion. Ai has the sound of the mute e in faisant, doing ; and 
that of a (like a in far) in douairiere, dowager. 

EI7. 
Eu is either long, as in jeune, fast ; or short, as in jeune, 
young. It has already been stated that the English language 
has no sound corresponding to the French eu. The sound of 
the short eu, however, may be described as somewhat similar 
to the English u in tub. 

OU. 

On is pronounced either long or short. In the former case, 
it sounds like the English oo in loon : croute, crust, rind ; in 
the latter, like u in bushel, full, bull ; goutte, drop. 

Note. — As a general rule, are short — all vowels followed by a double 
consonant (bb, cc, cq, dd, gg, 11, mm, nn, pp, rr, ss, tt) : long — all vowels 
marked with an accent (circumflex, grave, or acute) ; all vowels followed 
by several different consonants (in the same syllable) ; all vowels before a 
consonant followed by a mute e ; and all vowels at the end of a syllable. 

The Nasal Voivels. 

The general pronunciation of the nasal vowels has already 
been given, page 2. 

Am is pronounced without nasal sound at the end of some 
foreign names, as Abraham., JRoboam, Rotterdam., Potsdam, 
Cham, &c. ; Adam, however, is pronounced Adang. 

Amm and ann are pronounced without nasal sound ; thus, 
constamment is pronounced constammang ; armee, anney. 

Kmnistie is pronounced amnistee. In damner and condamner 
the m is not sounded. 



6 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

Em is sounded like the English em in hem, in proper names, 
as Jerusalem, Sem ; and in some words taken from the Latin 
language; ^em, decemvir, decemvirat. 

* The. sound of em in hem is given also to emm, except ir 
compound words, such as emmancher, emmariner, &c, in whicl 
the preposition is distinctly sounded. In femme, and in adverb* 
in emment, the e preceding the mm is sounded like the English 
a in fat : thus/emme is pronounced fam; differemment, diffey- 
ram-ang ; lemme, lemma, is pronounced laym. 

Indemnite is pronounced engdamneetey (ey as in they). 

En is sounded like the English en in men, in abdomen, amen, 
hymen, examen ; however, hymen is pronounced sometimes also 
with the nasal sound, and examen is frequently pronounced 
exameng. In Mentor, Ruben, Benjamin, the en is pronounced 
eng ; the same pronunciation is given to the en in memento, 
agenda ; and to en final : ancien, mien, lien, europeen ; and also 
to en in the singular of the present tense (indicative), and in 
the future and conditional tenses of venir, tenir, and their 
compounds : il vient, il viendra, nous tiendrons, votes tiendriez. 

The termination ent of the third person plural of verbs 
is sounded like a simple e; Us donnent, Us aimer aient, Us 
jparlaient, are pronounced as if written donne, aimeraie, parlaie. 

Enn is pronounced like the English en in men. Solennel 
and hennir are pronounced respectively solannel and hanneer. 

In enamourer, enhardir, enharmonique, enivrer, ennuyer, 
enorgueillir, the en is pronounced like an. 

Im and in are pronounced without a nasal sound — 1. when 
the m or n is followed (in the same word) by a vowel or mute 
h : in&nime, innumain : — 2. in the word interim, and in proper 
names taken from foreign languages : 8eV\m, Ephrdim, Ibrahim • 
however, the nasal sound is preserved in Benjamin, Joachim. 

Imm and inn are not nasal : immoler, immense, inn<?, innover. 

In the words calomnie, automnal, insomme, somnambule, 
hjmne, the m and n are both distinctly sounded : cal-omnee, &c, 

In automne, the m is not sounded. 

JJm is pronounced om in some words taken from the Latin, 
as geranium, album, laudanum, &c. 

The n of an, en, in, on, un, final, is softened and drawn over 
to the vowel commencing the next word, in cases only where 
the sense admits of no break or pause between the two words ; 
e. g., il m'en a parle, mon ami, certain auteur, on ignore, un 
esprit, &c. But the sound remains nasal if the sense admits of 
a break between the two words ; e. g., mon cousin est venu, 
notre vin rouge est bien bon a boire } &c. 



PRONUNCIATION. 7 

Consonants. 

B has the same sound as in English. It is sounded in 
radoub and rumh, but not mplomb. 

C sounds like k before a, o, u, I, n, r, and also generally at 
the end of words. It sounds like c in cider, before e, i, y ; when 
marked with a cedilla (c), it has the same soft sound also before 
a, o, u. In second and its derivatives it has the sound of the 
hard g in English ; the same sound is given to it also in secre- 
taire, secret air -erie, secretariat, which, however, are pronounced 
also secretaire, &c. In violoncelle and vermicelle, it is usually 
pronounced like sh, on account of the Italian origin of these 
words. 

It is not sounded in croc, accroc, arc-boutant, lane, Mane, 
broc, clere, cotignac, eric, done (before a consonant), echees, 
estomac, fane, franc, jonc, lacs (snare, string, noose), marc 
d? argent (eight ounces of silver), pore, tabae, tronc ; but it 
sounds in ecliee, Marc (Mark, proper name), croe-en-jambe, 
franc etourdi, die blane au noir, pore-epic. 

CJi before a vowel sounds like sh in she, sliaJce : chat, chercher; 
before a consonant it is always pronounced like h : Christ, 
ehretien, technique, &c. In drachme, it has the sound of the 
hard g. In almanaeh it is silent. 

In most words taken from the Greek, or some Oriental 
language, ch sounds like Jc, even though followed by a vowel : 
Aehab, Antioehus, Anaeharsis, Melchisedec, archetype, Chaldee, 
Chio, cateehumene, Chersonese, ehiromancie, Achelous, archange, 
orchestre, &c. In Michel Ange also it is sounded like h ; but 
in Acheron it has the sound of sh. 

D is pronounced as in English. D at the end of words is mute, 
except before words beginning with a. vowel or mute li, where 
it is sounded like t: granH homme, pronounced grang-tomm, &c. 

It is sounded like the English d at the end of proper names : 
Alfred., David, Gad, Obed, &c. ; and in a few words of foreign 
extraction : eplwd, lamed, Cid, Sud, Sund, Talmud. 

The d final is always mute in bond, fond, gond, onuid, nid, 
noeud, and pied ; except in the following locutions, where it is 
pronounced with the sound of t : de fond en comble, de pied en 
cap, tenir pied-h-boule, avoir tin pied-k-terre. 

E is pronounced as in English. F final is sounded, except in 
cerf, ceri-volant, cM, ceidfrais, ceiddur, neri de boeuf bceui gras, 
eteid, chei-d'eeuvre, and in the plurals, oeufa, boeuh, nerh, neuh 
(new) . * 

G is pronounced like the English g in go, glue, grave, before 



5 A GRAMMAR OF THE TRENCH LANGUAGE. 

a, o, u, and consonants. Before e, i, or y, its sound resembles 
that of the s in pleasure, or z in azure. 

O final is mute in bourg, faubourg, doigt, legs, going, vieux- 
oing, hareng, etang, vingt, signet, Begnard (name of a French 
poet), and in rang, sang, long before a consonant. 

On has generally the liquid sound : signer, pronounced sinyey 
(the first y as in year, the ey as in they). At the beginning of 
words, however, and in the middle of some words, it is pro- 
nounced like the English gn in ignorant : Grnide, gnome, JProgne, 
igne, stagnant, diagnostic, regnicole, agnat, impregnation, &c. 

When double g stands before e or i, the hard sound is given 
to the first, the soft to the second g ; e. g., suggerer. 

H at the beginning of words is either mute or aspirate. It 
is aspirated in the following words and their derivatives: — 
Hableur, hache, hagard, haie, haillons, hair, haire, holer, halle, 
Jiallebarde, halte, hamac, hanche, hanneton, hanter, harangue, 
haras, harasser, harceler, hardes, hardi, hareng, hargneux, 
haricots, haridelle, harnais, harpe, harpie, harpon, hasard, hater, 
hausser, haut, haut-bois, havresac, hennir, hcraut d'armes, 
herisser, hetre, heurter, hibou, hideux, hierarchie, homard, honte, 
horde, hors, hotte, houblon, houille, houlette, houppe, houppelande, 
houspiller, housse, huche, huees, huguenot, huit, hwner, huppe, 
hure, hurler, hussar d. The h is aspirated also in heros, Hol- 
lande, and Hongrie : but we say without aspiration, Vheroisme, 
V heroine, Vheroique vertu, fromage d' Sollande, toile d' Hollande, 
eau de la reine d : Hongrie. 

II in the middle of words is mute, except in compounds of 
words sounded with the aspirated h, such as dehors, ehonte, &c. 

H is always silent after r or t. 

J has the sound of s in pleasure, or of z in azure. 

K has the same sound as in English. This letter occurs 
only in a few words of foreign extraction. 

L has, in most words, the same sound as in English. 

L final, preceded by ai, ei, cei, eui, oui, and double I in the 
middle of words, preceded by i, have a liquid sound, resembling 
that of the English 11 in brilliant, million, or gl in seraglio : 
org ueil, bail, travail, merveilleux, treillage, &c. 

II final is liquid in avril, babil, Bresil, cil, gentil (pagan), 
gentilhomme (in gentil, pretty, genteel, and in the plural, 
gentilshommes, the I is silent), mil, peril. 

The I is silent in baril, chenil, coutil, fenil, fils, four nil, fusil, 
gril, nombril, outil, persil, pouls, soul, sourcil. In fl, thread, 
and poil, hair, the I has its proper sound. 

III is not liquid at the commencement of words, nor in the 



PRONUNCIATION. 9 

following words and their derivatives : armUlaire, cavitation, 
codiciHe, dist\Rer,fibrille,fritil\aire, imbecille, instiiler, macciUaire, 
jwille, osciWer, ^>^ill<?, pusillanime, scintiHer, la SybS\e, titter, 
tranquuie, vaculer, vUle. Achille is pronounced Asheel. 

The I is liquid in Miihaut, PardaYhac, and Sully, proper names. 

M and N have the same sound as in English, except when 
preceded by a, e, i, o, u, y (see Nasal Vowels) . Monsieur is 
pronounced as if written Mossieu. 

P and Ph are sounded as in English. 

P is mute in JSantiste, banteme, bantistaire, bantiser, domnter, 
exemnter, corns, comnte, and its derivatives ; exempt, sculnter, 
and its derivatives ; prompt, and its derivatives ; sent, septieme, 
septiemement (in the other derivatives of sept it is heard) ; 
temps, printemps ; and also in the three persons singular of the 
present indicative of romnre and corrompre. But it is sounded 
in baptismal. 

P final is silent in champ, camp, drop, hup, siron, galop ; and 
also in tron, beaucoup, and coup, before consonants. 

In Zaps, relaps, and rant, both the final consonants are 
pronounced. 

Q is sounded as in English. It is mute in coq d'Inde, though 
sounded in coq. In cinq (jive), the q is not sounded except 
before a vowel or a mute h, at the end of a sentence, and in 
numeration. 

Qu is in most words sounded like k : qualite, queue, que, 
question, &c. In some words, before a, it is sounded Jcoo ; 
aqu&tique, aqu&tile, quadrature, qu&terne, e'qu&teur, equation, 
in-qu&rto, quadragenaire, qu&drage'sime, quadruple, quadripede, 
quaker (pronounced hooaker, a as in far), liquation, quadrige, 
loquacite. In some other words, before e and i, it is sounded 
like the English qu, or like kv : quintile, pronounced hvinteel, 
a quia, eque stre, equitation, liquefier, quest eur, quintuple, 
quirinal, Quinte-Curce, Quintilien, &c. 

B, is sounded as the English r in remnant, error ; it should 
always be pronounced distinctly, more particularly in the 
middle of a word, between a vowel and a consonant. 

P final is always sounded after the vowels a, i, o, u, except 
in Monsieur. 

The terminations er and ier of the infinitive of verbs of the 
first conjugation, are pronounced respectively e and ie, (ey and 
e-ey, ey as in they), except when followed by a vowel or a mute 
h: aimer V eclat, pronounced aimey leycla (the e-y.as in they, 
the final a as in far) ; aimer a chanter, pronounced aimeyra 
shangtey (the final a as in far — ey as in they), 

b3 



10 A'GKAMMAE OF THE FKENCH LANGUAGE. 

In many adjectives and nouns the terminations er and ier 
are pronounced respectively ey and e-ey. JEr is sounded air in 
the following words : Jupiter, Alger, Pater (the Lord's prayer), 
Lucifer, Gessner, Niger, amer, belveder, cancer, cher, cuiller, 
enfer, ether, fer, jier, frater, gaster, hier, hiver, magister, mer 7 
Stathouder, ver. 

When the adjectives dernier, entier, leger, premier, singulier, 
and a few others, precede a substantive beginning with a vowel 
or mute h, the r is sounded, being drawn over to the initial 
vowel : son premier &cte, pronounced song prem-e-ay-ract ; un 
singulier evenement, &c. However, before a, et, and en, the 
final r of these adjectives remains silent. 

In the terminations ers, erd, ert, ard (ards), art (arts), ord 
(ords), ort (oris), the r is sounded, but the d, t, s, ds, and ts, 
remain silent : vers, rewords, canard, il perd, vert, art, mort, &c. 

Double r is sounded in the initial irr ; in the future and 
conditional of acquerir, courir, mourir ; in errer, horreur, 
torrefler, and their derivatives. 

S at the beginning of words has the sound of the English s 
in sister : soldat, salade, merer. It has the same sound in the 
middle of a word, when preceded or followed by a consonant. 
S has the soft sound of the English s in please, or z in zeal, in 
the middle of words between two vowels, base, rose, ruse, 
aise. Except de'sue'tude, pusillanime, and in some compounds 
in which the second constituent begins with s: entresol, parasol, 
tournesol, preseance, vraisemblable, &e. 8 has the soft sound in 
shire, svelte, Sganarelle, asbeste, balsamine, balsamique, bisoille, 
presbytere, transitif, transiger, transitoire, transaction, trans- 
alpin, and some few other words ; and in Arsace, Asdrubal, 
JEsdras, Israel, Isboseth, Thisbe, Alsace, Augsbourg, Brisgaw, 
Lesbos, Louisbourg, Presbourg, JPhilipsbourg, RyswicJc. 

S is mute in du Guesclin. 

S final is mute in Jesus Christ, pronounced as if written 
Jesu Ghri; fleur-de-lis; and in the conjugation of verbs, je 
rends, tu aimes, tu mangeais, tu aimas, &c. ; and also in alors, 
toujours, depuis, des, des (des que, tandis que), and most words 
in common use: bas, cas, repas, repos, trepas, tapis, souris, 
divers, avis, os, moeurs, &c. As the mark of the plural it is 
always silent. When a word terminating in a silent s is 
followed immediately by a word beginning with a vowel, or 
mute h, the final s is drawn over to the initial vowel, and the 
soft sound is given to it : vous avez, pronounced voo zavey (a as 
in fat — ey as in they). 

S final is sounded in as, agnus, aloes, bibus, bis, blocus, chorus, 



PRONUNCIATION. 1 1 

Cholera-morbus, dervis, floret, foetus or fetus, gratis, jadis, laps, 
lapis, les lis, la Lys (a river), metis, metis, oremus, ours, plus 
que, plus-que-parfait (but in plus, plus de, &c, it is mute), 
pathos, relaps, rebus, sens (but it is mute in sens commun), sinus, 
en sus, les us, vasistas, virus, vis, tournevis, and in all Latin 
words not in common use. It is also beard in Greek, Latin, and 
otber foreign proper names: Amadis, Atlas, Atlios,Delos, Brutus, 
Rubens, Gil Bias, Las Casas, &c, and in Bheims and Sens. 

The s ougbt never to be sounded when it is not written ; it 
is a most vulgar error, for instance, to interpose an s between 
quatre and yeux, in the locution entre quatre yeux. 

Sli and sch are. both pronounced like the English sh. Sc, 
followed by e or i, is pronounced at the beginning of words, 
like a simple sharp s : scene, science ; in the middle of words 
as double s : effervescence, susception, viscere. But before 
a, o, u, and I, r, the sc is sounded sk : scapulaire, sclerotique, 
scribe, scolie. 

T sounds as in English. 

Ti, except when preceded by s or x, in which case both 
consonants are distinctly sounded, is pronounced like see in the 
English word scene — 1. when followed by a mute e : democratic, 
inertie, &c. ; except partie, repartie : — 2. when followed by a, 
eux, al, el, en, ent, on, us, um : il balbutia,, ambitieux, partial, 
partiel, Diocletien, patience, patient, action, Curtius, Latium. 

Th is sounded like a simple t. 

T final is not heard except in the following words : aconit, 
apt, aspect, Astaroth, azimuth, bismuth, brut, chut, circonspeet, 
comput, deficit, distinct, dot, exact, fat, fret, Goliath, granit, 
gratuit, indult, infect, intact, intro'it, lut, malt, echec et mat, net, 
occiput, opiat, pat, preterit, rapt, respect, rit, sinciput, spath, 
subit, succinct, tacet, tact, Thibet, transit, zenith. Both s and 
t are sounded in Brest, Be Christ, Vest (east), Zest, Vouest, 
test, toast, entre le zist et le zest. 

In sept and huit the final t is mute before consonants ; but 
if the next word begins with a vowel, the final t of the numeral 
is sounded and drawn over to the initial vowel of the next word. 

The conjunction et is pronounced ey as in they. 

Double t is sounded like the simple t, except in atticisme, 
Atticus, Attique, guttural, pittoresque. 

V has the same sound as in English. 

W is not a Erench letter ; it occurs only in a few words of 
foreign extraction, where it is sounded v, except in ivist and 
ivisky, wiskey or wiski, where it has the English sound. In 
Newton, the ew receives the sound of the French eu. 

X is generally sounded ks. 



12 A GRAMMAR, OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

In words beginning with ex followed by a vowel or mute %, 
it is pronounced gz. The same sound is given to it in Xante, 
Xantippe, JLavier, ILenophon, Xerxes, ~X.imen.es ; the latter, how- 
ever, is also sometimes pronounced Sheemayne. 

In soixante, and also in six and dix, when unaccompanied by 
substantives, it is pronounced like the English ss in Miss. The 
same pronunciation is given to it also in the following names 
of cities : Aix, Aix-la-Chapelle, Auxerre, Auxonne, Bruxelles, 
Luxeuil. 

The final x of adjectives (and also of the article aux) is silent, 
except before a vowel or a mute h, where it is sounded like the 
English z in zeal : deux, doux, heureux, &c. ; le deuxieme, pro- 
nounced as if written deuzieme ; deux aunes, as if written deuz 
aunes ; aux armes, as if written auz armes, &c. Six and dix 
follow the same rule, except when unaccompanied by substan- 
tives, as has already been mentioned. 

X final is silent, except in proper names, and in horax, climax, 
index, larynx, onyx, perplex, phenix, prefix, sphinx, storax, syrinx, 
thorax. 

In Don Quixote, the x sounds like the English sh. 

7i is pronounced like the English z in zone. It is sounded 
like s at the end of proper names : JRhodez, Suez. 

Z final is silent in the second person plural of verbs, and in 
words terminating in ez, as assez (pronounced assey — ey as in 
they), chez, nez. 

Z is never doubled in Erench. The double z (zz) in words 
from the Italian retains its Italian pronunciation, or is sounded 
like a simple z by those not acquainted with Italian. 

In familiar talk and common reading, the final consonant 
(with the exception of the final s) is rarely drawn over and 
joined to the initial vowel of the next word : avant-hier, vous 
aimez a lire, are generally pronounced avan-hier, vous aimez a 
lire (ahvang-eeair — ah like a in father ; voo zaimey ah leer — ey 
as in they, ah like a in far). To pronounce ahwang teeair, voo 
zaimey zah leer, might even be taxed with affectation. 

In public speaking and reading, in the pulpit, on the stage, 
and in declamation, the final consonant is always joined to the 
initial vowel of the next word, with the exception, however, of 
a small number of words specified already in the rules on the 
pronunciation of the consonants. Thus the following lines, — 
Tin grand homme est partout ou se repand sa gloire ; 
Ilfaut un intervalle au repos, aux plaisirs. 
are pronounced as if written, — 

Tin gran thomme est partou tou se repand sa gloire ; 
Ufau tun mntervalle au repo, zaux plaisirs. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



An attentive perusal of the preceding rules on the pro- 
nunciation of the French tongue will suffice to show the 
intelligent student that the pronunciation would afford a verm- 
in different and unreliable guide indeed to the orthography of 
that language. Kow it will be readily conceded, that the 
correct spelling of a language is of at least equal importance 
with its correct pronunciation ; a few general rules and hints 
on the orthography of the French language may, therefore, not 
be deemed altogether out of place, even in an elementary work 
like the present ; the more so, as they will be found to bear 
also on the pronunciation, and, in some degree, even on the 
gender of nouns. Of course, the rules here given are not 
intended to be committed to memory, but simply for attentive 
perusal, and to serve for the purpose of reference. 

I. "We have seen that the final consonants of most words 
are silent, and that between some of the so-called nasal vowels 
there exists a similarity of sound approaching absolute identity. 
The correct way of spelling and writing words terminating in 
such silent consonants or nasal vowels may in most cases be 
learnt by a reference to their derivatives. Thus the adjective 
stoniacal shows that the primitive from which it is derived, 
estomae, and which is pronounced estomah (ah like a in far), is 
spelled with a c at the end ; bon, good, and bond, skip, bound, 
are both pronounced bong, — the correct spelling of the former 
is indicated by the feminine bonne, that of the latter by the 
verb bondir, to skip, to bound, to gambol, both respectively 
derived from them ; the derivative famine indicates the proper 
final consonant of its primitive faim, sanguin that of sang, 
ranger that of rang, bnme that of brun, combattre that of 
combat, projeter that oiprojet, cham^etre that of champ, dra^erie 
that of drap, bergeve that of berger, amasser that of am as, briser 
that of bris, vernisser that of vernis, disposer that of dispos, 
fusilier that of fusil, chatte that of chat, plate that of plat, sotte 
that of sot, &c. 

This rule applies to an immense number of words. For 
reference, a list is here appended of the principal words of 
which either no derivatives exist, or of which the derivatives fail 
to indicate the final consonant. (Words occurring in any of 
the succeeding rules *are excluded from this list.) 

Abces, appas, appetit, artichaut, bandit, bosquet, brouillard, 



14 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

cabinet, canot, carquois, chaos, chasselas, chaux (lime), choix, 
circuit, conflit, congres, corps, cotignac, courroux, cours and its 
compounds, concours, discours, &c, eric, crucifix, dais, deces, 
defaut, delit, depot, detroit, doigt, effort, endroit, entrepot, 
epinards, etang, etat,faix (load, burthen), fatr as, filet, flux and 
reflux, fonds (land, ground, landed estate), frais, frimas, 
galimatias, harnais, heraut (herald) , heros (hero), impot, inter St, 
jais, jus, laquais, legs, lilas, marais, mets, minois, mois, mors 
(horse-bit), nez, noeud, nord, pavot, perdrix, plafond, pldtras, 
port (port, harbour), pus, relais, remords, rempart, renfort, 
repas, repit, ressort, rez-de-chaussee, riz (rice), surcroit, taffetas, 
toujours, toux, velours, verglas, vieillard, vingt. 

II. All nouns of the feminine gender terminating by sound 
in ai (ay), e, eu, i, oi, ou, u, are spelled and written with a mute 
e at the end (aie, ee, eue, ie, oie, oue, ue) ; e. g., baie, abbaye, 
idee, queue, mairie, proie, proue, rue. 

Exceptions. — *paix : — b nouns in te and tie; e. g., amenite, 
amitie (substantives expressing an idea of capacity, and past 
participles used as substantives, follow the general rule ; e. g., 
charretee, jetee) : — c brebis, fourmi ; merci, pity, compassion, 
mercy; nuit, perdrix ; souris, mouse {souris, smile, is of the 
masculine gender) :— d croix ; foi, faith ; fois, time {foie, liver, is 
of the masculine gender), hi, noix ; paroi, wall; poix, pitch 
(poids, weight, and pots, pea, are of the masculine gender) : 
— e bru, glu, tribu, vertu. 

III. Nouns of dignity and profession, terminating by sound 
in a (like a in far) are spelled and written with a t at the end ; 
e. g., consulat. The same rule applies also to a great many 
derivatives formed by the addition of that termination to a 
French word ; e. g., soldat from solde,forgat from force, &c. 

IV. All substantives and adjectives terminating by sound in 
air, and which are formed from shorter words, take a mute e 
at the end ; e. g., legionnaire from legion, fractionnaire from 

fraction. The termination iair (eeagr) by sound is written iere 
in substantives of the feminine gender ; e. g., lavandiere (except 
pierre, stone) ; iaire in substantives of the masculine gender : 
e. g., bremaire (except cimetiere, Her re). 

V. Ait terminates lait, souhait,fait, trait, and the compounds 
of the two latter; et all other words in ay, in which the 
derivatives indicate a final t ; e. g., projet. 

VI. The termination e (ey as in they) by sound, is spelled 
and written er in masculines when the e is preceded by i, 
y, ill, y, ch ; e. g., belier, ecuyer, bouteiller, verger, rocher. 
Exceptions. — Conge, clerge, duche, eveche, pied, age ; and the 



ORTHOGKAPHY. 15 

past participles used in the capacity of masculine substantives, 
allie, debauche, &c. 

VII. The termination i (ee) by sound is spelled and written 
is in substantives formed from a participle present by a change 
of the termination {ant to is) ; e. g., coloris from colorant ; in 
debris, devis, chassis, parvis, radis, ris (laugh, reef), ris-de-veau 
(sweetbread) ; and in words where the derivatives indicate the 
final s. 

VIII. The termination an is found in etau, landau, pilau, 
sarrau, and in substantives where the final sound o is preceded 
by* a vowel; e. g., fleau, tuyau. Exceptions. — Duo, cacao, 
chariot, imbroglio, loriot, trio. The termination eau is found in 
substantives and adjectives in o, where the derivation indicates 
the presence of an e ; e. g., tonneau (tonne), nouveau (nouvel). 

IX. The nasal sound in (eng) at the beginning of a word is 
written in or im (the latter before b and p : m being universally 
used instead of n before b, m, and p; e. g., embellir, emmener, 
empire. Exceptions. — Bonbon, bovJbonniere, embonpoint) ; e. g., 
insecte, impoli. Exception. — Ainsi. 

X. The nasal sounds en and em (see the preceding rule) are 
found at the beginning of verbs ; e. g., engager, embrasser. 
Exceptions. — Ambitionner, ambler, ambrer, amplier, amplifier, 
amputer, ancrer, anticiper, antidater, antidoter. JEn is used in 
substantives terminating by sound in antion (angseeong) ; e. g., 
dimension, prevention. Exception. — Expansion. And also in 
verbs terminating by sound in andre (angder) ; e.g., rendre. 
Exceptions. — Rep andre, epandre. An is used in the middle of 
words before g, and before and after ch ; e. g., manger, epanclie- 
ment, chanteur. Exceptions. — Venger, pencher, and the deriva- 
tives of these verbs. Ment terminates all substantives formed 
from a verb ; e. g., avancement, from avancer? 

XI. The sound indre (engder) in the infinitive of verbs is 
written eindre ; e. g., ceindre. Exceptions. — Contraindre, 
craindre, plaindre. Vaincre and convaincre are also spelt ain. 

XII. Ance terminates substantives formed from a participle 
present ; e. g., resistance, from resistant. JEnce terminates sub- 
stantives not formed from a participle present ; e. g., innocence. 
There are, however, many exceptions from this rule; e. g\, 
deference, existence, &c. (from defer ant, existant, &c), aisance, 
balance, circonstance, enfance, &c. Anse terminates anse (handle, 
creek), danse, panse (paunch), transe, il pause (- — une plaie, he 

* The words aimant and calmant not being, properly speaking, sub- 
stantives formed from verbs, cannot be regarded as exceptions froai this 
rule. 



16 A GUAMMAU OF THE FllENCH LANGUAGE. 

dresses a wound — un cheval, he grooms a horse). Tlnse termi- 
nates defense, dense, depense, dispense, immense, intense ; il 
compense, il depense, il dispense, il encense, il offense, il pense, il 
recompense. 

XIII. The sound sion (seeong) is rendered by — a sion in 
apprehension, ascension, dimension, expansion, extension, passion, 
pension, suspension ; in all words where the termination sion is 
preceded by I or r ; e. g., repulsion, version. Exceptions. — 
assertion, desertion, insertion, portion : — b ssion in words termi- 
nating in ession, mission, cussion ; e. g., retrocession, permission, 
percussion : — c xion in complexion, connexion, flexion and" its 
compounds, fluxion : — d tion in all other words, except suspicion. 

XIV. The terminations eur and our are respectively given 
to all substantives, both masculine and feminine, terminating 
in those sounds ; le directeur, la peur, le jour, la tour (tower). 
Exceptions. — Beurre, demeure, Jieure, leurre, bourre, bravoure ; 
and some in s, as ours (bear), velours, rebours, &c. 

XV. The sound ir (eer) of the infinitive of verbs is rendered 
by ire in those verbs which form their present participle in 
vant or sant (pronounced zanl) ; e. g., ecrire, participle present 
ecrivant; dire, participle present disant. Exception. — Servir. By 
ir in all other verbs, except bruire,frire, maudire, rire, sourire. 

XVI. Oir (o-ar) is used — a in all verbs terminating in that 
sound ; e. g., voir, recevoir, &c. Exceptions. — Boire, croire: — b in 
all substantives of the masculine gender formed from a participle 
present (by changing ant into oir) ; e. g., rasoir (rasant) :- — c in 
dortoir, espoir, noir, soir. All other words terminating in that 
sound are written oire ; e.g., armoire, mangeoire, &c. 

XVII. Atte is found in chatte, datte, il flatte, il gratte, latte, 
matte, patte ; itte in quitte, il quitte, il acquitte ; outte in goutte ; 
utte in butte, hutte, lutte. All other words terminating 
respectively in these sounds are written with ate, ite, oute, ute ; 
e. g., savate, conduite, route, chute. 

XVIII. J is used before a, o, u; e. g.,jambe, joie, jument, 
except in geai {\fif),geole. G before e and i ; e. g., gencive, gigot, 
except in je, jeter, jeu, jeudi, jeune (young) , jeune (fast, fasting) , 
majeste, majeur, and their derivatives. 

XIX. The verbs in quer keep the qu throughout the conjuga- 
tion ; but in the substantives and adjectives formed from them, 
the qu is changed to c ; e. g., provoquer, provoquant, provoque, 
nous provoquons ; provocation, communication, communicable, un 
fabricant, vacation, vacant. Exceptions. — Attaquable, criti- 
quable, croquant (s^wager) ,immanquable, mar quant, remarquable, 
risquable. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 17 

XX. The derivatives formed from a primitive ending in a 
consonant usually double that final consonant; e. g., amas, 
amasser ; fer,ferrer, &c. There are, however, many exceptions 
from this rule. 

XXI. The consonants b, d, g, are doubled respectively only 
in abbaye, abbe, gibbeux, gibbosite, rabbin, sabbat ; addition, 
adducteur, adduction, reddition; agglomerer, agglutiner, aggraoer, 
suggerer, and the derivatives of these several words. 

XXII. The other consonants are doubled in the words 
beginning with — 

Ac : accabler. Exceptions. — Acabit, acacia, academie, acag- 
narder, acajou, acanthe, acare, acaridtre, acolyte, aconit, acoquiner, 
acoustique, acquerir, acquiescer, acquitter, acre (sharp, tart), 
acre (acre), the derivatives, a few terms of science which are 
very rarely used, and all words where the ac is followed by t. 

Oc : occuper. Exceptions. — Ocre, oculaire, oculiste. 

Af: affection. Exceptions. — Afin, Afrique, qfistoler. 

Uf: effacer. Except efaufiler. 

Dif: diffamer. 

Of: offense. 

Suf: suffire. And also biffer, bouffe, bouffer, bovffette, bouffir, 
bouffon, buffet, buffle, buffetin, chiffe, chiffre, coffin, coffre, gauffre, 
greffe, griff e, maffle, muffle, piffre, raffermir, raffiner, raffoler, 
raffolir, siffler, souffler, souffrir, taffetas, taffia, truffe, truffer, 
and their derivatives. 

Al : allure. Exceptions. — Alambic, alan, alarguer, alarme, 
alegre, alene, alentour, les alentours, adenine, alerion, alerte, 
alevin, alexandrin, alezan, aleze, alibi, aliboron, alidade, aliener, 
aligner, aliment, alinea, aliquote, aliter, alizier, aloes, aloi, alors, 
alose, alouette, alourdir, aloyage, aloyau, alumine, alun, their 
derivatives, and a few scientific terms little in use. 

II: illustre. Exceptions. — Iliade, He, iliaque, Hot, ilote. 

Col: colline. Exceptions. — Colature, colegataire, coleoptere, 
colere, coleret, colibri, colicitant, colifichet, colimacon, colin- 
maillard, colique, colis, colisee, colombe, colon, colonie, colonel, 
colonne, colophane, coloquinte, colorer, coloris, colosse, colostre, 
cohere, and their derivatives. 

Com : commentaire. Exceptions. — Comedie, comessation, 
comestible, comete, cornices, cominge, comique, comitat, comite, 
and their derivatives. 

Im : immobile. Exceptions. — Image, imaginer, iman, imiter, 
and their derivatives. 

Ap : applaudir. Exceptions. — Apaiser, apanage, aparte, 
apaihie, apercevoir, apercher, aperitif, apertement, apetisser, 



18 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

apt, apiquer, apitoyer, aplaner, aplanir, aplatir, aplets, aplomb, 
apocalypse, apocryphe, apogee, Apollon, apologie, apologue, 
apoplexie, apostasie, aposter, apostille, apostolique, apostrophe, 
apotheose, apothicaire, apotre, apurer, their derivatives, and a 
few terms of science very little in use. 

Oppo : opportun. Exception. — Opodeldoc. 

Oppr : opprobre. "Words in which the op is followed by any 
other letter except o and r, do not double the consonant p ; 
e. g., opinion. 

Sup: supporter. Exceptions. — Superbe, superieur, supin, 
supreme, and their derivatives ; the compounds with super. 

Ar : arret. Exceptions. — Arabe, arable, arac, araignee, 
aramber, araser, aratoire, are, arene, areole, Areopage, arer, 
arete, aride, Arien, aries, ariette, aristarque, aristocrate, arith- 
metique, aromatique, aronde, aruspice, and their derivatives. 

Cor : corrompre. Exceptions. — Cor ail, coreligionnaire, coriace, 
coriandre, corinthien, corollaire, corolle, coronal, coryphee, and 
their derivatives, and also a few scientific terms very little in use. 

Ir : irrational. Exceptions. — Irascible, ire, iris, ironie, 
iroquois, and their derivatives. 

At : attacher. Exceptions. — Atelier, atermoyer, athee, athenee, 
athlete, atinter, atome, atonie, atourner, atours, at out, atrabilaire, 
dtre, atroce, and their derivatives. 

The consonant r is doubled also in the future and conditional 
of the verbs courir, envoyer, mourir, pouvoir, querir, voir, and 
their compounds ; e. g., nous mourrons, vous verrez, nous enver- 
rions, &c. 

Instead of doubling the consonant q, a c is put before it in 
some words, as in acquit, acquitter, acquiescer, acquerir, and 
their derivatives. 

The consonants are not doubled — a after a mute e; e. g., 
vemr, il renouvela, &c. (this rule, however, is not withput 
exceptions) : — b after a vowel marked with an accent ; e. g., 
e~pitre : — c after a nasal sound ; e. g., honteux : — d between two 
vowels of the same name ; e. g., malade : (there are, however, 
many exceptions from this rule) : — e after a compound vowel 
(ai, ou, &c.) ; e. g., plaire (from this rule, also, there are many 
exceptions) . 

ON THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 

The subject of this paragraph may be dismissed with a mere 
passing remark, as the practice of the two languages differs but 
little in this respect ; still it may be useful to observe, that the 



, ORTHOGRAPHY. 19 

French do not write the personal pronoun je (I) with a capital 
letter ; and the names of nations and sects only when used 
to designate the nation or sect collectively; e. g., les Anglais 
ont remporte une glorieuse victoire sur les Busses, the English 
have gained a glorious victory over the Eussians; but un 
anglais, an Englishman; des f rang ais, Frenchmen; — les Pro- 
testants, the Protestants ; but un protestant, des protestants. 



ON THE USE OF THE ORTHOGRAPHIC SIGNS OF THE 
FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

The Accents. 

We make use in French of three accents, viz. the acute 
(V accent aigu) ('), the grave (V accent grave) ( N ), and the cir- 
cumflex (X accent circonflex) ( A ). The acute accent is placed 
over the vowel e when it has the pure or acute sound (eg as in 
they), and stands at the end of a syllable; e. g., honte, verite 
(ve-ri-te), abrege (a-bre-ge), mepriser (me-pris-er). In this 
latter word the second e, though having the acute sound, is not 
marked with the accent, because it is not the final letter of the 
syllable. 

The grave accent is placed on the broad e (pronounced ay as 
in nay) standing at the end of a syllable, or preceding the 
final s ; e. g.,frere (fre-re), deces (de-ces). 

Remark. — The e is broad whenever it closes a syllable and is followed 
by a consonant and a mute e ; e. g., fidele, it espere. Except — nouns sub- 
stantive in eye ; e. g., siege, sortilege ; the interrogative forms eusse-je t 
parle-je ? &c. and the exclamations puisse-je / dusse-je ! ■ 

The grave accent is placed also on the prepositions a and des 
to distinguish them respectively from the verb a (third person 
singular present of avoir, to have) and from the contracted 
article des ; on the adverbs la and ou, to distinguish the former 
from the article or pronoun la, the latter from the conjunction 
ou ; and on the following words : ga, dega, en dega, deja, hola, 
voila. 

The circumflex accent serves to lengthen the sound of the 
vowel on which it is placed ; it is used mostly in cases where a 
letter has been suppressed ; e. g., age, flute, epitre, which were 
formerly written aage, fluste, epistre. Thus it is placed over 
the long a before ch or the articulated t (i. e. t retaining its 
proper sound, as in "baton, satin) ; e. g., tdche, task ; pdture, 
pasture, provender, food ; — over the last e but one of the words 
ending in erne, sounded aym; e. g., supreme (except the ordinal 



20 A GBAMMAE OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

numbers deuxieme, troisieme, quatrieme, &c, in which the 
sound of the e is not long) ; — over the i of the verbs in aitre 
and oitre, in all tenses where that vowel is followed by t; 
e. g., il nait, elle decrdltra; — over the o preceding the finals le, 
me,ne; e. g., role, f ant ome, cone ; — over the possessive pronouns 
le notre, le voire ; — over the first and second person plural of the 
preterite definite ; e. g., nous partdmes, vous punites, nous 
regumes, vous rendites ; — and over the third person singular 
imperfect subjunctive ; e. g., qu*il achetdt, finit, congut, vendtt ; 
— over the u of the adjectives mur, sur. 

The circumflex is placed also as a mark of distinction on the 
articiple past of the verbs croitre, devoir, redevoir, mouvoir, 
ut only when used in the masculine singular : cru, du, redu, 
mu. Some grammarians place the circumflex also on tu, par- 
ticiple past of taire. 

The Apostrophe. 

The apostrophe (') denotes the suppression (elision) of one 
of the vowels, a, e, i, effected in order to avoid an unharmonious 
collision of two vowels. 

The vowel a is elided in la (article and pronoun) before a 
vowel or mute h ; e. g., Vamitie, Vhirondelle, je Vaime, I love 
her (instead oije la aime). 

The vowel e is elided — *'mje, me, te, se, le, ce (pronoun), de, 
ne, que, jusque, before a vowel or mute h; e. g., fadoube, il 
Trtaime, il n" arrive pas, tfest fait, &c. : — b in lorsque, puisque, 
quoique, only before il, elle, on, un, une ; e. g., lorsqu'il marche, 
puisqii elle s'en va, quoiqu^on se soit decide, &c. : — c in entre and 
presque only when they form a component part of another 
word; e. g., presqu ile, entr'acte : — d in quelque only before un 
and autre : — e in grand* chambre, grand* chere, grand' chose, grand" - 
merci, grandmere, grandmesse, grandpeine, grand'peur, 
grandsalle. 

The vowel i is elided only in the conjunction si before il and 
Us ; e. g., s'il me donne, s*ils voyaient. 

The Cedilla. 

The cedilla (la cedille) ( f ), placed under the consonant c, 
before a, o, u, imparts to that consonant the accidental s-like 
sound which it has before e and i ; it is used in words of which 
the etymological parentage demands or indicates the soft sound 
of the c; e. g., g 'argon (gars) , frangais (France), fagade (face), 
regu, regoit (recevoir, recette), menagant (menace, menacer), &c. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 21 



The Diceresis. 

The diaeresis (le trema) (") is a double dot placed horizontally 
over the vowels e, i, u, when preceded by another vowel not 
belonging to the same syllable with them, and which might, 
but for this mark, be confounded in a common sound with 
them ; e. g., Noel (Christmas), naif, JSloise, hair, Saul, Esau, 
which are pronounced respectively, no-el, na-if, Mo-ise, ha-ir, 
Sa-ul, Esa-u, and not noel, nef Moase, here, Sol, Eso, as one 
would be led to pronounce them but for the dia3resis over the 
second vowel. 

The diceresis is also placed over the mute e after u preceded 
by g, to denote that the u is a distinct letter, and not inserted 
merely for the purpose of rendering the g hard before the e 
(see the rules on pronunciation) ; e. g., eigne, contigue, exigue, 
aigue, which are pronounced cig-u, conti-gu, exi-gu, ai-gu. 

The diceresis must never be used to replace the accent over 
the accented e (e or e) ; therefore do not write poete, poeme, 
Chloe, poesie, but poete, poesie, poeme, Chloe. 

It is a practice with some to replace the letter y by i marked 
with a diaeresis (i), and to write envoier, moien, instead of 
envoyer, nioyen. This is decidedly wrong. 

The Hyphen. 

The hyphen, or mark of union (le trait d' ) union) (-), serves to 
connect two or several words. It is used — a (as in English) to 
connect the component parts of certain compounds ; e. g., 
arc^en-ciel, rainbow ; s'entre-saluer, to salute one another ; 
couvre-chef kerchief (turban) ; contre-amiral, rear-admiral, &c. ; 
and of certain adverbial locutions ; e. g., sur-le-champ, tout-a- 
coup, long-temps, au-dedans, par-dessus, &c. ; and also certain 
proper names ; e. g., Quint-Cur ce, Michel- Ange, Syro-JPhenicien, 
Bas-Rhin, Seine-et-Oise, Mont-blanc, Seine-infer ieure, Terre- 
neuve, Chdlons-sur-Marne, Cap de Bonne-Esperance, &c. : — 
b between the verb and the pronouns je, moi, tu, toi, nous, vous, 
il, Us, elle, elles, le, la, les, lui, leur, y, en, ce, on, whenever 
these pronouns, in the capacity of either subject or comple- 
ment, happen to stand after the verb ; e.g., regois-je ? laisse- 
onoi, tais-toi, finis-tu ? puissions-nous I allez-y, donnez-en, veut- 
on ? &c. ; when there are two pronouns together placed in 
this condition, - two hyphens are used ; e. g., porte-le-leur ; but 
no hyphen is used when the pronoun is not the complement of 
the verb preceding it, but of a verb in the infinitive mood 



22 A GRAMMAR, OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

following after ; e. g., faites le lire, have it read, cause it to be 
read — the pronoun le is here the complement of lire, whereas in 
faites-le lire, make him read, the pronoun is the complement of 
faites : — c both before and after the euphonic letter t, inserted 
between verb and pronoun; e.g., donne-t-il? chanter a-t-elle? 
in va fen, go away, be off, no hyphen is used, as the t here is 
the pronoun te, and not a mere euphonic letter : — d before or 
after ci and la,, inseparably connected with a substantive, pro- 
noun, preposition, or adverb ; e. g., cette femmi-ci, ces hommes- 
la, la-dessus, ci-devant, celui-ci, celle-la, &c. : — e to join tres to 
the adjective or adverb which follows, and meme and memes to 
the pronoun preceding ; e. g., tres-utile, tres-sagement ; lui- 
menie, elles-memes : — f lastly, the hyphen serves in French 
numeration to replace the conjunction et, and ; e. g., dix-sept, 
vingt-deux, cinquante-cinq, soixante-dix-neuf, &c, instead of 
dix et sept, vingt et deux, cinquante et cinq, soixante et dix et 
neuf, &c, expressions which are not used in French. A hyphen 
is also placed, in obedience to long-established practice, between 
quatre and vingt in the numbers quatre-vingts, eighty, four- 
score, quatre-vingt-un, &c. 

The Parenthesis. 

The parenthesis (la parenthese) () is used for the same pur- 
pose in French as in English. 

Punctuation or Pointing. 

The punctuation in French agrees pretty closely with the 
English. The dissimilarities are, moreover, rather of a debata- 
ble nature, and such as cannot well be discussed in the pages 
of an elementary work like the present. 

The names of the French marks of pointing are — 

La virgule (,), comma. 

Le point-virgule (;), semicolon. 

Les deux points (:), colon. 

Le point (.), full stop. 

Le point interrogatif (?), point or note of interrogation. 

Le point exclamatif (!) , point or note of exclamation. 



THE ARTICLE. 23 



CHAPTEE I. 



THE ARTICLE AND THE SUBSTANTIVE. 
Preliminary Memarlcs. 

The French language has only two genders, the masculine 

and the feminine: all nouns representing inanimate things, and 

which in English are of the neuter gender, being distributed 

between these two, mostly according to their respective ter- 

k minations, as we shall hereafter see. 

"We have in French, as in English, two numbers, the singular 
and the plural. 

The French language has no cases ; the simple nominative 
form of nouns serves equally to denote the accusative or objective 
case (direct regimen or direct complement), whilst the genitive or 
possessive, and dative or terminative cases, (indirect regimen or 
indirect complement), are formed by means of prepositions, and 
more particularly by means of the prepositions de, of, and a, to. 
Still in this point the two languages differ only in so far as the 
possessive case is concerned, for which the English language has 
an inflective form (s preceded by an apostrophe, the latter indi- 
cating simply the elision of the e of the old Saxon inflection es), 
of which the use is, moreover, almost exclusively confined to 
nouns representing animate beings. 

A. The Article. 

"We have in French only one article, which is le for nouns of 
the masculine, la for nouns of the feminine gender. The plural 
les serves for both genders ; e.g., le lion, the lion ; la souris, the 
mouse ; les soldats, the soldiers ; les femmes, the women. 

If the noun before which the article le or la stands, happens 
to commence with a vowel or a mute h, the e or a of the article 
is thrown out or elided, and the elision marked by an apostrophe ; 
e. g., Thomme, V esprit, Vamenite, Vhistoire, instead of le Jiomme, 
le esprit, la amenite, la histoire. 



24 A GKAMMAK OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

The prepositions de and a are respectively contracted and 
blended into one word with the article les, making des for de les, 
and aux for a les. The same contraction takes place between 
the preposition de and a and the article le before nouns com- 
mencing with a consonant or an aspirated h; du being substituted 
for de le, au for a le. But before nouns commencing with 
a vowel or a mw^ h, no such contraction takes place, as regards 
the article le, or rather its elided form l\ No contraction takes 
place if the adjective tout, all, happens to intervene between 
the preposition de or a, and the article le or les. 



EXAMPLES. 

le pere, the father. 

du pere (instead of de le pere), of the father. 

au pere (instead of a le pere), to the father. 

les peres, the fathers. 

des peres (instead of de les peres), of the fathers. 

aux peres (instead of a les peres), to the fathers. 

le heros, the hero. 

du heros (instead of de le heros), of the hero. 

au heros (instead of a le heros), to the hero. 

les heros, the heroes. 

des heros (instead of de les heros), of the heroes. 

aux heros (instead of a les heros), to the heroes. 

Veffort, the effort. Vhonneur, the honor. 

de Veffort, of the effort. de Vhonneur, of the honor. 

a Veffort, to the effort. a Vhonneur, to the honor. 

les efforts, the efforts. les honneurs, the honors. 

des efforts, of the efforts. des honneurs, of the honors. 

aux efforts, to the efforts. aux honneurs, to the honors. 

la mere, the mother. la hache, the hatchet. 

de la mere, of the mother. de la hache, of the hatchet. 

a la mere, to the mother. a la hache, to the hatchet. 

les meres, the mothers. les haches, the hatchets. 

des meres, of the mothers. des haches, of the hatchets. 

aux meres, to the mothers. aux haches, to the hatchets. 

Vaheille, the bee. Vhorloge, the clock. 

de Vaheille, of the bee. de Vhorloge, of the clock. 

a Vaheille, to the bee. a Vhorloge, to the clock. 

les aheilles, the bees. les horloges, the clocks. 

des aheilles, of the bees. des horloges, of the clocks. 

aux aheilles, to the bees. aux horloges, to the clocks. 



USE OF THE ARTICLE. 25 

tout le monde, everybody. 

de tout le monde, of everybody. 

a tout le monde, to everybody. 

tons les officiers. toutes les vertus. 

de tous les officiers. de toutes les vertus. 

a tous les officiers. a toutes les vertus. 



USE OF THE ARTICLE. 

The article is used much, more extensively in French than 
in English. Of course, a complete set of rules applying to 
every imaginable case where the article is to be used or 
omitted, cannot be given in an elementary work like the pre- 
sent : moreover, this is a subject on which the student may 
derive more solid instruction from practice than could be 
imparted to him by precept. Still a few general rules, bearing 
more especially on those points in which the French practice 
differs more or less from the English, may be of service. 

a. Use of the Article. 

I. The article is required in French before all common nouns 
used in a definite sense ; i. e., when designating a genus — in 
other words, when representing the totality of the objects 
respectively denominated by them ; e.g., Vhomme est mortel, 
man is mortal ; Vhomme signifies here the totality of mankind ; 
or when designating a species — in other words, when repre- 
senting the totality of a certain specified class of the objects 
respectively denominated by them ; e.g., les enfants studieux 
sont cheris de leurs maitres, studious children are beloved by 
their masters ; les enfants studieux signifies here all studious 
children ; or, finally, when designating a particular individual 
being or thing ; e. g., le pere est aime de ses enfants, the father 
is beloved by his children ; la femme que vous avez vue hier, 
the woman whom you saw yesterday ; le livre que fai achete, 
the book which I have bought. 

The article is accordingly required also before nouns of 
materials when employed in a definite sense ; e. g., le fer est 
plus utile que For, iron is more useful than gold ; aimez vous le 
cafe? do you like coffee ? and before abstract nouns when 
employed in a definite sense; e.g., V amour est aveugle, love is 
blind ; les maladies de la peau sont souvent bien diffieiles a 
guerir, diseases of the skin are often very difficult to cure, &c. 

II. The article is used in French also before nouns of 
measure, weight, and number, where the indefinite article a or 

o 



26 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

an is used in English ; e. g., il vend son vin cinq francs la 
bouteille, he sells his wine at five francs a bottle ; la viande se 
vend sept sous la livre, meat sells (is sold) at seven sous 
(threepence-halfpenny) a pound ; les pommes se vendent quatre 
sous la douzaine, apples sell (are sold) at twopence a dozen ; 
deux francs la piece, two francs a piece, &c. 

Remark. — The denominations of the divisions of time take the preposi- 
tion par before them in cases where the English use a or per ; e. g., Je lui 
donne deux ecus par semaine, I give him two dollars a (or per) week ; il jouit 
d'un revenue, de dix mille livres sterling par an, he has (he enjoys a revenue 
of) ten thousand pounds a year {per annum). The English expressions 
(so much) per ticket or a ticket, per head or a head, per man or a man, 
are rendered in French by (tant) par billet, par tete, par homme. • 

III. The article is used also before adjectives, &c, employed 
as substantives ; e. g., le pauvre est quelquefois plus heureux 
que le riche, poor people (the poor) are sometimes happier 
than rich people (the rich) ; les si et les mais, the ifs and buts ; 
les oui et les non, the yeas and noes ; les car, les pourquoi, 
les comment, les on dit, les que, les qui, &c. 

IV. The article is put before names of countries, provinces, 
rivers, mountains, and winds ; e.g., V Allemagne, Germany ; 
la Cologne, Poland ; V Angleterre, England, &c. ; la Tamise, the 
Thames; le Rhone, la Saone, la Seine, le Danube, &c; les Alpes, 
les Pyrenees, le Vesuve, &c. ; Vaquilon, the north-wind, &c. 
The four divisions of the globe also take the article before 
them, — VAsie, V Amerique, V Afrique, V Europe. The article is 
used also before the names of some towns (principally French) ; 
e.g., le Havre, la Fochelle, la Ferte, le Ferche, la Fleclie, 
la TIaye, la Corogne, &c. ; and before the names of some poets 
and artists (principally Italian) ; e. g., le Tasse, le Dante, 
TArioste, le Titien, le Foussin, &c. 

Exceptions. — The names of countries take no article after 
the preposition en ; e. g., en Amerique, en Fspagne, il est en 
France, he is in Erance, &c. ; nor after the preposition de, 
preceded by alter, sortir, venir, revenir ; e.g., Jeviens d' Fspagne, 
il revient de Fussie, il va de Frusse en Belgique, &c. (We say, 
however, il revient de V Amerique, de VAsie, de V Afrique, de 
V Europe; and some grammarians prefer saying,^ viens de 
V Fspagne, instead of d 'Fspagne ; de Vltalie, instead of d' Italic, 
&c.) : nor after de when that preposition serves to join the name 
of the country in the capacity of an adjective complement to 
the substantive preceding it ; e. g., Vempereur de Fussie, the 
Emperor of Russia (the Russian Emperor) ; la noblesse d* Angle- 
terre, the nobility of England (the English nobility) ; les vins 



USE OF THE ARTICLE. 27 

de France, the wines of France (the French wines), &c. But 
where the name of the country happens to be preceded by an 
adjective, the article must be used; e.g., le royawne de la 
Grande-Bret ague, &c. 

V. The article is used in French before nouns of title or 
dignity, when preceding the name to which they are affixed ; 
e.g., la reine Tomyris; je parte du Ifarechal Castellane ; ecrivez 
au commissaire de police Renard, &c. But the article is omitted 
in all cases where the name precedes the noun of title or dignity 
affixed to it; e.g., Nicolas, empereur de JRussie ; je tiens ce 
billet de M. Castellane, marechal de France ; fai vu la reponse 
quit a recue de M, Renard, commissaire de Police, &c. 

VI. The articles le, la, les, are used before the adverbs, plus, 
mieux, moins, preceding an adjective whenever an idea of com- 
parison is suggested ; e. g., de tous ces despotes, Nicolas est 
certes le moins meprisable, of all these despots, Nicholas is 
surely the least despicable; des trois pieces que fai vues hier 
au Gymnase, celle de M. Musset est la plus spirituelle, of 
the three plays which I saw yesterday at the Gymnase, that 
of M. Musset is the most witty ; " Ivanhoe " et " Quentin 
Durward " sont par mi les plus interessants des romans de Walter 
Scott, " Ivanhoe'' and "Quentin Durward" are among the 
most interesting of Sir Walter Scott's novels. In all such 
sentences the article agrees with a substantive understood; 
thus, in the examples here given, the article agrees respectively 
with the substantives, despote, piece, roman. But where it is 
simply intended to denote a quality carried to the highest 
point, without suggesting any idea of a comparison with other 
persons or things, the invariable le alone is used; e.g., voire 
soeur ne pleure pas, lors meme quelle est le plus affligee, your 
sister sheds no tears, even when she is most afflicted. The le 
forms here with the plus (mieux, moins) an adverbial locution 
which serves to qualify the adjective preceded by it. 

Remark. — Le plus, le mieux, le moins, are always adverbial locutions, and 
remain accordingly invariable, whenever they relate respectively to a verb 
or adverb; e. g., ce qui nous frappe le plus dans la vie de cet homme, e'est son 
desinteresscment, what strikes us most in the life of that man is his 
disinterestedness ; il est difficile de dire laquelle des deux sozurs a agi le 
plus noblement dans cette affaire, it is difficult to say which (or whether) of 
the two sisters has acted most nobly in this matter. 

VII. Du, des, de la, de V, are used before common nouns 
when employed in a partitive sense, and not preceded by an 
adjective ; e.g., il a de la farine, he has (some) flour ; nous 
avons de V argent, we have (some) money ; a-t-il des amis ? has 

c 2 



28 A GRAMMAR OE THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

he (any) friends ? vous avez des ennemis, you have (some) 
enemies ; donnez moi du pain, give me some bread. But the 
article is omitted, and the simple preposition de used, when- 
ever the common noun employed in a partitive sense happens 
to be preceded by an adjective ; e. g., on a appele de nombreux 
temoins, numerous witnesses have been called ; nous avons bu 
d' excellent Mere, we have drunk excellent beer, &c. 

Remakk. — Certain compounds, as petit-maitre, fop, dandy, beau ; petits- 
pois, green peas ; petit-pate, pasty ; sage-femme, widwife ; basse-cour, 
poultry yard; bon-mot, witticism, jest; grand homme, great man, man of 
superior genius ; petite-maison, madhouse, bedlam ; jeunes gens, young 
folks, &c, take the article before them when employed in a partitive sense ; 
e. g., Vltalie a produit des grands hommes, VEspagne des grands seigneurs, 
Italy has produced (some) great men, Spain ('some) grandees ; avez vous des 
petit-pois ? have you any green peas ] non, mais nous avons des petits-pdtes, 
no, but we have some pasties ; it y a des petites-maisons en France aussi 
bien qui en Angleterre, there are (some) madhouses in France as well as in 
England, &c. However, the use of the article in such cases is not to be 
considered an exception from the rule, as the partitive substantive is here 
inseparably connected by the meaning with the adjective preceding it, and 
the two form in fact only one word. 

VIII. The article is used exceptionally after la plupart, 
most, the greater part, and bien, much, many, in deviation from 
c, II. a, page 29 ; e.g., la plupart des hommes sont sujets a des 
infirmites; il a eu bien du chagrin ; vous avez vu bien des pays. 



b. Repetition of the Article. 

The article must be repeated before every substantive* ; e. g., 
les dues, les comtes, et les barons lui ont jure fidelite, the dukes, 
counts, and barons, have sworn fealty to him. 

The article must be repeated also (as it is in English like- 
wise) before each of two adjectives connected by the conjunc- 
tion et, when they do not qualify one and the same substantive ; 
e.g., le grand et le petit g argon, the great and the little boy ; 
this sentence is elliptical, its full expression and meaning being 
le grand garcon et le petit garcon. But where the two adjec- 
tives qualify one and the same substantive, there is of course 

* The article may be omitted, however, sometimes in an emphatic 
recital or enumeration of several nouns in succession, and of which the 
last is usually followed by tout, rien, nul, personne, or chacun : Voisins, 
amis, parents, chacun prefere son inter et a celui de tout autre ; and some- 
times also in sentences introduced by void : — 

Voici trois me'decins qui ne se trompent pas : 
Qaite, doux exercice, et modeste repas. 



OMISSION OF THE ARTICLE. 29 

no occasion to repeat the article ; e.g., la grande et telle femme, 
the tall and handsome woman. 



c. Omission or suppression of the Article. 

I. The article is omitted before common nouns when used in 
a vague and indefinite sense ; i. e., when designating neither a 
genus, nor a particular species, nor an individual being or thing ; 
e.g., une montre d'or, a gold watch ; une maison en hois, a 
wooden house ; une querelle d'amis, a quarrel among friends ; 
agir avec prudence, avec sagesse, to act prudently, wisely (with 
prudence, with wisdom) ; agir en ami, to act as a friend. 

II. Accordingly, the article is omitted and the simple prepo- 
sition de used before common nouns, a when they happen to be 
the complement of a partitive collective, or of an adverb of 
quantity ; e. g., une foule de pauvres, a crowd of poor people ; 
une multitude d^etoiles, a multitude of stars ; beaucoup de 
soldats, many soldiers, a great many soldiers, &c. But the 
article must be used if the common noun is followed by an 
incidental sentence imparting to it a more definite signification ; 
e.g., un grand nombre des soldats qui avaient ete r envoy es dans 
leurs foyers, s'etaient enroles de nouveau, a great many of the 
soldiers that had been dismissed to their homes had enlisted 
again ; il lui reste encore beaucoup des pieces d* or qu'il a 
apportees de la Californie, he has still left a great many of the 
golden pieces which he brought from California. b When they 
happen to be the complement of an active verb accompanied by 
a negation; e.g., ne lui fait es pas de reproches, do not reproach 
him. But the article must be used if the common noun is 
followed by an adjective or an incidental sentence imparting to 
it a more definite signification ; e.g., ne cherchez pas des pretextes 
frivoles, do not seek (for) frivolous pretexts ; it ne fait jamais 
des excuses qui ne soient bien fondees, he never makes idle and 
groundless excuses. 

III. The article is omitted after the preposition en* 

IV. The article is omitted in French before nouns of rela- 
tionship, if standing (in an adjective capacity as it were) after 
the proper name to which they refer ; e. g., le dauphin epousa 
Marie Antoinette, fille de Marie Therese, the dauphin married 
Marie Antoinette, the daughter of Marie Theresa ; Telemaque, 

fits d" Ulysse, Telemachus, the son of Ulysses. 

* Except in a few locutions where custom has sanctioned its use : en la 
presence de Dieu, en Y absence d'un tel, en Van mil huit cent trente-sept, &c. 



30 A GfLAMMAE OP THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

V. The article is omitted also before nouns denoting a 
dignity, profession, trade, or occupation, or a nation or sect, 
when used in an adjective capacity; e.g., il etait berger, et il 
devint roi, he was a shepherd, and he became a king ; il vient 
d'etre cree pair du royaume, he has just been created a peer of 
the realm ; il estfrangais, he is a Frenchman ; elle est protest ante, 
she is a Protestant ; M. Pierce est elu president des JEtats- 
JJnis, Mr. Pierce is elected President of the United States ; 
son fr ere est conseiller d'etat, his brother is a councillor of state ; 
sa sceur est couturiere, his sister is a sempstress (mantua- 
maker, dress-maker) ; son pere etait medecin, his father was a 
physician ; M. Georges est tailleur, Mr. Georges is a tailor. 
However, if the personal subject of the sentence is represented 
by the pronoun ce, the numeral adjective un, une, is put before 
the attributive noun of dignity, &c. ; e.g., c'est un conseiller 
d'etat, c'est un medecin, c'est un catholique, c'est un tailleur, 
cest un francais, &c. 

VI. The article is omitted in certain proverbial sayings; 
e.g., pauvrete nest pas vice, noblesse oblige, &c. ; and also in 
certain locutions formed by the combinations of a noun with a 
verb, and more particularly with faire and avoir ; e.g., avoir 
faim, to be hungry ; avoir soif, to be thirsty ; avoir Jionte, to be 
ashamed; avoir froid, avoir chaud, avoir besoin, avoir pitie, 
avoir compassion, &c. ; faire tort, faire plaisir, faire peur, faire 
provision, faire profession ; donner occasion, donner permission, 
&c. ; entendre raison, entendre malice, &c ; gagner chemin, &c. ; 
mettre ordre, mettre fin, &o. ; porter bonheur, &c. ; prendre 
plaisir, prendre patience, prendre parti, &c. Locutions of this 
kind may properly be looked upon in the light of compound 
verbs. 

The English indefinite article a or an is mostly rendered in 
French by the numeral adjective un, une. The principal 
exceptions have been touched upon already in the preceding 
rules. 



B. THE SUBSTANTIVE. 
Sect. I. The Gender. 

It has already been observed, that the French language 
admits only two genders, viz., the masculine and the feminine. 

It must be granted that this subject, which forms one of the 
most important branches of French grammar, presents con- 
siderable difficulties to the English student. However, these 



THE SUBSTANTIVE — THE GENDER. 31 

difficulties are by no means insuperable, and the student may, 
with a little study and attention, in a comparatively short time, 
learn to determine the correct gender of forty-nine French 
nouns out of every fifty, without being obliged to consult the 
dictionary. 

"We will proceed here upon the old sound " divide et impera" 
principle, and, in the first place, class all nouns substantive 
under two heads, viz., names or appellations representing 
animate beings, and nouns representing inanimate things, and 
abstract nouns. 



I. Names or Appellations of Persons and Animals. 

a. The gender of the names or appellations of persons is 
determined by the natural sex ; the names or appellations of 
male persons, and the appellations of titles, dignities, professions, 
trades, or occupations more exclusively or particularly affected 
to the male sex, are accordingly of the masculine ; the names 
or appellations of female persons, and the appellations of titles, 
dignities, professions, or occupations more exclusively or parti- 
cularly affected to the female sex, of the feminine gender. The 
same rule holds good, of course, also with respect to supernal 
beings. , 

Exceptions. — Alt esse, Highness ; Eminence, Eminence ; JSr- 
cellence, Excellency ; Grandeur, Grace ; Majeste\ Majesty ; 
patrouille, patrol ; Saintete, Holiness ; Seigneurie, Lordship 
(Ladyship) ; sentinelle, sentry (made by some of the masculine 
gender) ; and some collective nouns relating exclusively to 
males, such as armee, gendarmerie, milice, &c, — are of the 
feminine gender ; laideron, or laidron, an ugly girl, and tendron, 
a young lass, are of the masculine gender. 

For some of the terms of relationship, the French language 
has, like the English, distinct appellations for the male and 
female, e. g. : — 

Masculine. Feminine. Plural collective. 

le pere, father la mere, mother les parents, parents. 

lefrere, brother la sceur, sister 

Voncle, uncle la tante, aunt 

le neveu, nephew la niece, niece. 

In some instances the female term of relationship is formed 
from the male, as la file, daughter, from lefils, son ; la cousine y 
female cousin, from le cousin, male cousin. 

As regards personal appellatives or attributives in general, 



32 A GRAMMAR OP THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

those terminating in mute e serve equally for the masculine 
and feminine. 

Exceptions. — The following personal appellatives in mute e, 
change their final into esse in the feminine ; bonze (bonzesse, 
rarely used), borgne, chanoine, comte, diable, doge, drole, Druide, 
hote, ivrogne, Jesuite {Jesuit esse, rarely used), maire, mayor 
(niairesse, corresponding to the English mayoress — used some- 
times, though improperly) ; maitre, muldtre, ogre, negre, pauvre, 
poete (poetesse, rarely used), pretre, prince, prophete, suisse, 
traitre, vicomte. Carme, a Carmelite monk, makes Carmelite 
in the feminine. 

Appellative nouns denoting titles, professions, trades, occu- 
pations, qualities, &c, more exclusively appertaining to man, 
have no feminine. To this class belong, for instance, artisan, 
tradesman, artificer ; assassin, charlatan, quack ; fat, coxcomb ; 
ecrivain, writer ; escroc, sharper, swindler ; medecin, physician, 
partisan ; some nouns in mute e, as adversaire, opponent ; 
capitaine, collegue, duelliste, disciple, philosophe, &c. ; and many 
nouns in eur and teur* &s agresseur, amateur, virtuoso, connois- 
seur; auteur,censeur, compositeur, confesseur, defenseur, defender; 
docteur, editeur, facteur, postman ; fossoyeur, gravedigger ; 
graveur, engraver ; imposteur, imprimeur, printer ; ingenieur, 
engineer ; laboureur, ploughman, tiller ; litterateur, man of 
letters ; orateur, predicateur, preacher ; professeur, proviseur, 
provisor, head-master of a college ; questeur, questor ; redacteur, 
editor ; regis seur, manager, stage-manager ; successeur, vain- 
queur, conqueror, &c. 

But most personal appellatives or attributives (substantives 
or adjectives, as the case may be), in eur (and teur), which are 
formed from a participle present by changing ant to eur, form 
their feminine by changing the final r to se, e. g., danseur, 
dancer: danseuse (from dansant, participle present of danser, 
to dance) ; devineur,f conjuror, diviner, soothsayer : devineuse 
(from devinant, participle present, of deviner, to guess, to 
divine) ; menteur, liar : menteuse (from mentant, participle 
present of mentir, to lie) ; chanteur, singer : chanteuse J (from 

* These nouns are -usnally classed with the adjectives; however, as 
most of them are actual substantives, which are simply employed often in 
an adjective capacity, we have deemed it more appropriate to assign them 
a place in this chapter. 

t The feminine of devin, an adjective, frequently used in a substantive 
capacity, and which has the same meaning as devineur, makes devineresse 
in the feminine. 

t The term cantatrice is bestowed more exclusively on public singers of 
great talent and repute. 



THE GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. 33 

chantant, participle present of chanter, to sing) ; chasseur, 
hunter : chasseuse * (from chassant, participle present of 
chasser, to hunt) ; pecheurrf fisherman : pecheuse (from pechant, 
participle present of pecker, to fish) ; baUleur, % yawner : 
bailleuse (from baillant, participle present of bailler, to 
yawn) ; demandeur, § asker, petitioner, dun : demandeuse (from 
demandant, participle present of demander, to ask, to require, to 
beg, to demand) ; vendeur, || seller, monger, dealer : vendeuse 
(from vendant, participle present of vendre, to sell) ; debiteur, 
spreader of news : debiteuse (from debiter, to utter ; but debiteur, 
debtor, makes debitrice in the feminine, in obedience to the 
next rule) ; &c. 

Exceptions. — ^Defendeur, defendant, makes defender esse in 
the feminine ; vengeur, avenger, makes vengeresse. b The 
following in teur (formed from a participle present by changing 
ant to eur) form their feminine by changing eur to rice (from 
a misapplied analogy, in accordance with the next rule) : 
executeur, inspecteur, inventeur, persecuteur. 

Those personal appellatives (substantives or adjectives, as 
the case may be) in teur, which are not formed from participles 
present by simply changing ant to eur, form their feminine 
by changing eur to rice, e.g., accusateur, accusatrice ; delateur, 
delatrice ; spoliateur, spoliatrice ; protect eur, protectrice ; media- 
teur, mediatrice ; legislateur, legislatrice ; auditeur, auditrice ; 
curateur, curatrice, &c. 

Abbe, abbot, makes abbesse. 

Ambassadeur makes ambassadrice. 

Bachelier, 9 ^ bachelor, makes bachelette, damsel. 

Due, duke, makes ducJiesse. 

Empereur, makes imperatrice. 

Gouverneur, makes gouvernante. 

Pair, peer, makes pairesse. 

Quaker makes quakeresse. 

Hoi, king, makes reine, queen. 

Serviteur makes servante. 



* The term chasseresse, huntress, is used only in the poetic style. 

+ But pecheur, sinner, from pecher, to sin, makes pecheresse in the 
feminine. 

J But bailleur, lessor, from battler (a ferme), to lease, makes bailleresse 
in the feminine. 

§ But demandeur, plaintiff, makes demanderesse in the feminine. 

|| But vendeur, vendor or vender (law term), makes venderesse in the 
feminine. 

% Bachelier is no longer used in French in the sense of the English 
word bachelor, which is rendered by celibataire, or garcon. In French the 
word bachelier is used only in connexion with the terms es arts, es lettres, 
es sciences, bachelor of arts, of letters, of sciences. 

08 



34 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

Most of the remaining personal appellatives or attributives 
are adjectives, used simply in a substantive capacity ; the 
student will accordingly find in the Chapter on the Adjective, 
the required information on the mode of forming the feminine 
of such nouns. 

Additional Remarks. 

JEnfant is masculine when designating a male, feminine when 
designating & female child. The plural enfant s is always of the 
masculine gender, even when used to designate an exclusive 
collection of female children. 

Gens, people, folks, servants, demands the feminine gender of 
the concordants preceding, the masculine gender of the con- 
cordats following it ; e.g., les vieilles gens sont soupconneux, 
old people are suspicious ; les gens spirituels ne sont pas toujours 
les mieux instruits ; toutes les mechantes gens, &c. Tons is, 
however, substituted for toutes in all cases where this adjective 
precedes gens, either alone or in company with some adjective 
or adjectives having only one termination, which serves equally 
for the masculine and feminine ; e.g., tous les gens qui pensent 
bien, tous les gens a" esprit; tous les braves gens, tous les 
honnetes gens, &c. The adjective preceding gens is put in the 
masculine also when that noun conveys to the mind more 
exclusively the idea of male beings, which is the case more 
especially in certain compound expressions formed by gens with 
other nouns, with the aid of the preposition de, such as gens 
de lettres, literary people, literary men, writers ; gens de robe, 
lawyers, magistrates ; gens d'eglise, churchmen ; gens d'epee, 
gens de guerre, military men ; gens d'affaires, men of business; 
gens de hi, lawyers, &c. ; e. g., certains gens de lettres ; quels 
gens de bien ! &c. 

Couple (couple, pair, brace) applied to persons is of the 
masculine gender ; e. g., un couple fldele, a faithful couple ; 
un couple de fripons, a brace of villains, a couple of rogues ; 
applied to animals and things couple is of the feminine gender^; 
e.g., une couple d'ceufs, une couple de poulets. 

b. As regards the names of animals, their gender may be 
learnt from their respective terminations according to the rules 
which will be found in a subsequent part of this section. All 
we need remark here is, that the French language has, like the 
English, distinct appellations for the male and female o£ some 
animals; e.g. — 



THE GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. 35 

Male. Female. 

belter, ram ; mouton, wether. brebis, ewe, sheep. 

bouc, he-goat. chevre, goat. 

bourdon, drone. abeille, bee. 

cerf f stag. biche, hind. 

cheval, horse; etalon, stallion. jument, cavale mare. 

cochon, pig ; verrat, boar. truie, sow. 

coq, cock. poide, hen. 
jars, gander. . _ oie, goose. 

lieore, hare. hase, doe-hare, coney. 

sanglier, wild boar. laie, wild sow. 

singe, ape. . guenon, female ape. 

taureau, bull; bouvillon, bullock, vache, cow; genisse, heifer. 

In the case of some other animals, the female name is formec 
from the male ; e. g., dne, dnesse ; agneau, agnelle ; chat, chatte ; 
chevreuil, chevrette; chien, chienne; daim, daine; faisan,faisane; 
faon, faone; lapin, lapine ; lion, lionne ; loup, louve ; ours, 
ourse ; paon, paone ; perroquet, perruche ; poulain, pouliche; 
serin, serine ; tigt*e, tigresse : or the male from the female ; e. g., 
cane, canard ; mule, millet. 

But to the names of most animals the French language 
assigns the one or the other gender, as genus epicosnum, i. e., 
equally applying to the male and female ; e. g., un huffalo, 
chameau, camel ; elephant : une belette, weazle ; girafe, hyene, 
panther e : un epervier, sparrow-hawk ; cygne, swan ; geai, jay ; 
hibou, owl ; vautour, vulture ; une awtruche, ostrich ; hirondelle, 
swallow ; allouette, lark : un brochel, pike ; saumon, salmon ; 
turbot : une carpe, anguille, eel ; baleine, whale ; perch e : un 
crocodile, camelean, serpent, crapaud, toad : une grenouille, frog ; 
tortue, tortoise ; vipere : un papillon, butterfly ; hanneton, May- 
bug : wiefourmi, ant ; araignee, spider. 

The actual sex of such animals is designated in French the 
same way as in English, viz., by adding the words male, male, 
or femelle, female ; e. g., la panther e male, the male panther ; 
V elephant femelle, the female elephant ; or, but more rarely, 
le male de la panthere, the male of the panther ; la femelle de 
V elephant, the female of the elephant. 

II. Nouns representing inanimate things, and Abstract Nouns. 

The gender of the immense majority of the nouns belonging 
to this class, is determined by, and may accordingly (in most 
cases) be known from, the termination of the noun. 

The gender of a comparatively small number of them, may 
be known also from the nature or signification of the object 
denominated by the noun, or from the class to which that 



36 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

object happens to belong. Of these latter we will here treat 
first, premising that, though the gender of most of them will 
be found to correspond to the respective male or female termi- 
nation of the noun, yet there are some among them to which 
the termination would assign a different gender ; and others 
which, by virtue of their termination, form exceptions from the 
rule under which they are respectively classed here. 
a. Of the masculine gender are — 

1. The names of winds, seasons, months, and days. Excep- 
tions. — La bise, north-east wind ; la brise, breeze ; la mousson, 
monsoon, trade wind ; la tramontane, north wind ; automne, 
autumn, is made of both genders ; the masculine is preferable 
however. 

2. The names of colours and metals, and also the names of 
minerals, with few exceptions. 

3. The names of trees and shrubs. Exceptions. — Aubepine, 
hawthorn ; epine, thorn ; ronce, briar ; vigne, vine ; yeuse, 
holm-oak. 

4. The names of mountains. Exceptions. — Les Alpes, les 
Andes or Cordilleres, les Cevennes, les Pyrenees, les Vosges. 

5. The names of lakes. 

6. The names of boroughs, villages, hamlets, on account of 
bourg, village, hameau, which are of the masculine gender, being 
always understood. 

Note. — The gender of the names of states, empires, kingdoms, provinces, 
towns, islands, rivers, may in most cases be ascertained from their respec- 
tive terminations. With regard to the names of rivers, however, we may 
remark that the names of ancient and of most large modern rivers are of 
the masculine gender ; and with respect to the names of towns and cities, 
that some grammarians would make, them all of the feminine gender,* with 
the exception of Londres and Paris, and those which necessarily take the 
article le before them, as le Havre, le Caire, &c. ; whilst others assign the 
masculine gender to them, with the exception of those which necessarily 
take the article la before them, as la Rochelle, la Haye, &c. 

7. All adjectives, infinitives, adverbs, prepositions, and con- 
junctions, when used in a substantive capacity. 

Note. — Adjectives used substantively as representatives of personal 
nouns, adopt, of course, always the gender of the person respectively 
represented by them. 

* The word ville, town, city, which is of the feminine gender, being 
assumed to be understood. But when the name of a town is used figura- 
tively for its population, the masculine gender is always assigned to it ; 
e.g., tout Rome a assisU a cette glorieuse fete, all Rome was present at this 
glorious festival. 



GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. 37 

8. The letters oftlie alphabet. 

9. Those compound words joined by hyphens which do not 
contain a noun substantive (except liante-contre, counter-tenor), 
and all those formed of a verb and noun (except garde-role, 
closet, wardrobe ; tire-lire, money-box), and the names of a few 
plants, as, perce-neige, snow-drop ; perce-pierre or passe-pierre, 
sea-fennel ; passe-rage, dittany, and a few more. 

Note. — All other compounds joined by hyphens follow the gender of 
the principal noun, except the compounds of mi, mid, middle, half, with 
the names of the months, as la wii-Septembre, middle of September; and 
also lami-careme, mid-lent; apres-midi(f em.), afternoon; amere-mam (masc), 
back-stroke; chev re- fenille (masc), honeysuckle; 7icn^-aVehausses (masc), 
breeches; rez-de- ch&ussee (masc), ground-floor ," rouge-gorge (masc), robin- 
redbreast; tete-a-tete (masc). 

b. Of the feminine gender are — 

The names of holidays and saints' days, on account of the 
word fete, which is of the feminine gender, being understood ; 
e. g., la St. Jean, la St. Michel, la JPentecote, Whitsuntide. 
Exceptions. — Td.ques, Easter, and Noel, Christmas ; and even 
these two are not unfrequently found to follow the general 
rule. JPdque, the Jewish passover, and les payues, Easter 
devotions, are always feminine. 

"We now come to the last and most important part of this 
section, viz., that treating of the rules which define the influence 
of the termination of nouns over their gender, and which apply 
to the names of animals, as well as to those of inanimate things, 
and to abstract nouns. 

Side I. 

Of the masculine gender, are — 

a. All nouns of the class here treated of, ending in consonants, 
with the exception of those in ion, aison, and eur. 

b. All nouns of the class here treated of, ending in voicels, 
with the exception of those in te and tie, and in e mute (except 
those given sub c). 

c. All nouns of the class here treated of, ending in ge, me, 
ice, ire, ste ; and also those in le and re, when preceded by any 
other consonant (those in He and rre, and in le and re preceded 
by a vowel, are of the feminine gender) . 

Bale II. 

Of the feminine gender, are — 

a. All nouns of the class here treated of, terminating in 
aison, ion, and eur. 



38 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

b. All nouns of the class here treated of, terminating in te 
and tie, and in e mute, except those given in Rule I, sub c. 

Exceptions to Rule I * 



Amours (plural in the sense of passion, or affection of one 
sex for the other, and also in the sense of mistress ; in all other 
acceptations the plural amours follows the rule, — the singular 
amour is invariably of the masculine gender), boisson, brebis, 
chair, chanson, chaux, clef, cloison, cour, croix, cuiller, cuisson, 
dent, dot, faim, faux, scythe (but le faux, falsehood) ; fin, end, 
design (but le fin, main point, cream of a thing, best part of 
a thing) ; facon and its compounds, fois, time ; foison, foret, 
forest (but le foret, gimlet) ; garnison, gent, nation, tribe, race ; 
guerison, hart, iris, iris, rainbow (but Viris, masc, — the iris, a 
plant ; this latter is, however, also by some made of the feminine 
gender) ; legon, main, mere, moisson, mort, death ; mousson, nef 
noix, nuit, paix, pdmoison, part and its compounds, perdrix, 
poix, prison, rancon, soif souris, mouse (but le souris, smile) ; 
toison, tour, tower (but le tour, turn, trick, circumference, trip, 
walk, lathe) ; toux, trahison, vis, voix ; and also, Bagdad, Cumes, 
Honduras, Namur, Santa- Cruz, Tyr, Valladolid, Vera- Cruz. 



Eati, foi, faith ; fourmi, glu, loi, merci, parol, wall, partition 
(when applied to a part of the body, this word is made mascu- 
line by most grammarians ; e. g., le paroi du nez, the bridge of 
the nose) ; peau, tribu, vertu ; and also Bassora, Ceuta, Cuba 9 
Java, Lima, Malaga, Otahiti, Riga, Scio. 

c. 

1. In ge — all in rge (except le cierge, le large) ; allege, tender, 
lighter ; alonge, ange, chain-shot (but ange, angel, is of course 
masculine) ; auge, axonge, cage, coming e, Sponge, fang e, font ange, 
frange, grange, horloge, image, loge, longe, losange, louange, 
mesange, nage, neige, orange, orge, barley (but orge monde, or 
perle, peeled or pearled barley, is always masculine) ; page y 
page, side of a leaf (but le page, page, attendant) ; phalange, 

* Obsolete terms, and technical and scientific terms of rare occurrence, 
are not mentioned in this list of exceptions, as it would be worse than 
useless for the student to encumber his memory with them. 



GExNDEE OF SUBSTANTIVES. 39 

plage, rage, sauge, surlonge, tige, toge, vendange, melange, volige, 
voltige ; and also Cambridge, Carthage, Norvege, Thuringe. 

2. In me — alarme, time, amertwne, anagramme, arme, bergame, 
bireme (trireme, &c), breme, brume, chiourme, creme, cream 
(but le crime, or more correctly, chreme, chrism, act of anointing, 
consecrated oil) ; cime, coutume, decime, a tenth ; dime, drachme, 
ecume, enclume, enigme, epigramme, es crime, est a/me, esti/me,fame, 

ferme, flamme, forme, frime, gamme, gomme, gourme, grume, 
jusquiame, lame, larme, legitime, portion of a child (law term) ; 
lime, maxime, oriflamme, palme, a branch of the palm tree, 
victory, triumph (but un palme, a palm, or hand's breadth) ; 
paume, plume, pomme, prime, quadragesime (quinquagesime, 
sexagesime, septuagesime), rame, reclame, catchword (but un 
reclame, a reclaiming, term of falconry) ; reforme, rime, somme, 
sum, burden (but le somme, nap, slumber) ; trame, victime ; 
and also JBoheme, Farme, Borne, Sodome. 

3. In ice — avarice, blandices (plural — cajoling, flattery), cica- 
trice, delices (plural — delights ; the singular delice follows the 
rule) ; epice, helice, immondices (plural — filth, dirt) ; justice 
(injustice), lice, malice, matrice, milice, notice, office, buttery, 
pantry (but un office, an office, part, good turn) ; police, 
premices (plural — first-fruits) ; varice ; and also Galice. 

4. In ire — all names of plants in aire (except capillaire, 
maidenhair) , affaire, aire, amusoire, armoire, atteloire, attrapoire, 
avaloire, baignoire, balancoire, bassinoire, bouilloire, branloire, 
buire, chaire, circulaire, circular, circular letter ; cire, couloire, 
decrottoire, doloire, ecritoire, ecumoire, foire, glaire, glissoire, 
gloire, grammaire, haire, hegire, histoire, ire, judiciaire, judg- 
ment, discernment ; lardoire, mdchoire, mangeoire, memoire, 
memory (but un memoire, a memoir, memorandum) ; moire, 
nageoire, noire, passoire, paire, poire, polissoire, racloire, strickle 
(but le racloir, scraper, rake) ; satire, statuaire, statuary, the 
art of the sculptor ; tire, draught, pull (used only in certain 
locutions ; e. g., tout d'une tire, all at once) ; victoire ; and also 
JEpire. 

5. In ste — ameihyste, baliste, batiste, caste, conteste, liste, 
peste, piste, poste, mail, post-office (but le poste, post, station, 
place, office, employment) ; riposte, sieste, toste, rowing bench 
in a boat, rowing match (but le toste, toast, health) ; veste. 

6. In le — accouple, aigle, eagle (in the sense of standard, 
colours, banner ; as ; e. g., V aigle imperiale, the imperial eagle ; 
V aigle romaine, the Roman eagle ; in every other acceptation 
aigle follows the rule) ; barnacle, besides (plural — spectacles, 
temple-glasses) ; bible, boucle, chasuble, a kind of cope ; cible, 



40 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

debacle, epingle, escarboucle, etable, fable, manicles (plural — 
manacles), maroufie, a kind of paste (but le maroufie, scoundrel) ; 
moufle, nefle, pantoufle, perle, petoncle, rajle, regie, sangle, table, 
tringle; and also Adrianople. 

7. In re — algebre, ancre, cdpre, caper, fruit-bud of tbe 
Capparis spinosa, Linn, (but le cdpre, privateer) ; chambre, 
chartre, chevre, chiragre, gout in the hands (but le chiragre, 
person afflicted with gout in the hands) ; coriandre, couleuvre, 
dartre, dextre, encre, epitre, escadre, fenetre, fibre, fievre, 
filandres (plural — sea- weeds) ; foudre, thunderbolt (but un 
foudre, a large tun ; foudre, thunderbolt, is also made masculine 
in the elevated style, and in poetry ; e.g., etre frapp e du foudre; 
expirer sous les foudres vengeurs ; when used in a figurative 
sense foudre is always made masculine ; e. g., un foudre 
a" eloquence, a great orator ; un foudre de guerre, a great general, 
a great warrior ; les foudres lances par les p apes) ; gaufre, givre, 
serpent (in heraldry — but le givre, hoar-frost) ; guetre, huitre, 
Jiydre, lepre, lettre, levre, livre, pound, weight of 12 or 16 ounces; 
also a coin synonymous with franc ; une livre sterling, one 
pound sterling (but le livre, book) ; loutre, otter (but un loutre, 
a hat made of otter's fur) ; malencontre, manoeuvre, evolution, 
rigging (but un manoeuvre, a labourer, bricklayer's labourer) ; 
martre, mitre, montre, nacre, ocre, oeuvre, work, deed, action 
(but oeuvre, as applied to the works of an engraver, musician, 
&c, is of the masculine gender ; le grand-oeuvre, the philoso- 
pher's stone ; des Jiors d'ceuvre, ragouts, side dishes, is also of 
the masculine gender) ; ojfre, ombre, shade, shadow, ghost (but 
Jiombre, omber, game at cards, follows the rule) ; outre, patenotre, 
chaplet ; piastre, polacre, a kind of vessel used in the Levant ; 
poudre, pourpre, purple dye, a small shell fish (but le pourpre, 
purple, the purples — kind of fever) ; poutre, rencontre, tenebres 
(plural — darkness, the infernal regions) ; tourtre, vepres, vertebre, 
vitre ; and also Calabre, Cypre, Flandre, Gueldre. 

^Exceptions to Mule II. 
a. 

1. In ion — Ardelion, bastion, billion {million, &c), brimborion, 
camion, croupion, gabion, galion, lampion, lion, morion, morpion, 
pion, scion, scorpion, septentrion, stellion, talion, taudion. 

2. In eur — bonheur, choufleur (properly — chou-fieur, and 
accordingly of the masculine gender ; chou, the principal noun 
of the compound, being masculine) ; cJioeur, coeur, composteur, 
denominateur, deshonneur, diviseur, equateur, honneur, labeur, 



GENDER OE SUBSTANTIVES. 41 

lecteur, malheur, numerateur, pleurs (plural — tears) ; secteur, 
ventilateur ; and also JElsineur. 

b. 

1. In te — abricote, apart e, arret e, benedicite, comite, comte, 
cote, ete, pate, precipite, traite, veloute. 

2. In e mute. — All chemical salts in ate and ite ; all archi- 
tectural terms inglyphe and style ; all philosophical instruments 
in scope ; all geometrical figures in gone : — aborigines (plural 
— aborigines), acrostiche, acte, adepte, adulter e, adverbe, alveole, 
amulette, andante, dne, animalcule, antidote, antimoine, antipodes 
(plural — antipodes), apogee (perigee), apologue, arcane, aromate, 
ascarides (plural — ascarides), asphalte, asphodele, asterisque, 
attique, augur e, aune, alder (but une aune, an ell) ; autograplie, 
automate, axe, bagne, baptistere, barbe, Barbary horse (but la 
barbe, beard) ; becfigue* bequarre, berce, robin red-breast (but la 
berce, cow-parsnip) ; beurre, bissexte, bronze, caducee, caique, 
calorifere, calorique, caique, camee, cantique, capitole, capricorne, 
capuce, caractere, carbone, carrosse, cartouche, cartouche, orna- 
ment in sculpture (but la cartouche, cartridge) ; casque, cata- 
falque, catalogue, catarrhe, cautere, cenotaphe, centaur e, cerne, 
chene, chyle, cigarre, cimeterre, cimetiere, cirque, cloaque, com- 
mon sewer (but cloaque applied to the works of the ancients, 
follows the rule) ; cloporte, clystere, coche, caravan, large coach, 
passage-boat (but la coche, old sow, notch) ; code, codicille, 
colisee, colloque, collyre, colosse, commerce, compte and its com- 
pounds, concile, conciliabule, conclave, cone, confesse, conte, 
controle, coryphee, cothurne, conventicule, coude, crabe, crane, 
cratere, crepe, crape (but une crepe, a pancake) ; crepuscule, 
crocodile, cube, culte, cygne, decalogue, dedale, demerite, dialecte, 
dialogue, diese, diocese, disque, dissyllabe, and all other com- 
pounds of syllabe (syllabe itself, however, follows the rule), 
distiche, dithyrambe, dividende, divorce, dogue, domaine, domicile, 
doute, ebene, electrcphore, eleve, ellebore, elysee, embarcadere, 
emetique, empire, emule, epilogue, episode, equinoxe, erysipele, 
escompte, espace, evangile, exergue, exode, exorde, faite, feurre, 

filigrane, fleuve, fluide, foie, liver ; follicule, gall bladder (but 
lafolliade, the seed-vessel in plants) ; fratricide, homicide, &c, 

frene, genie, gite, glaive, globe, globule, golfe, grade, granite, t greffe, 
rolls, register (but une grefe, a graft) ; groupe, gruyere, gymnase, 

gypse, hale, heliotrope, sunflower (but une heliotrope, an oriental 

jasper); hemisphere, hemistiche,hieroglyphe, horoscope, hydrogene 

* More commonly bec-fyues (becafico). 



42 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

{pxygene, &c), hymenee, hymne, hymn, patriotic or martial song 
(but une hymne, a religious hymn) ; iambe, ictere, Inde, river 
Indus (but Inde, India, is of the feminine gender) ; inde, indigo ; 
insect, interligne, intermede, interregne, intervalle, jaspe, jeune, 
hiosque, labyrinthe, laque, china varnish, lacquer (but la laque, 
gum lac) ; lexique, libelle, lierre, lobe, logogriphe, luxe, lycee, 
madrepore, magistere, malaise, manche, handle (but la manche, 
sleeve) ; manes (plural — ghost), manque, martyr e, martyrdom ; 
mausolee, medianoche, menstrue, mercure, merit e, mesaise, mesen- 
tere, meteore, mille, a mile ; ministere, mode, mood in grammar 
— modulation in music (but la mode, fashion) ; modele, mole, mole, 
pier, dam (but une mole, a moon-calf, a false conception) ; monas- 
tere, monde, monologue, monopole, monticule, morne, moule, mould, 
model (but la moule, mussel, shell-fish) ; multiplicande, murmure, 
musee, myrte, mystere, mythe, narcisse, negoce, obelisque, opuscule, 
orbe, organe, orgue, organ (but the plural orgues follows the 
rule) ; pacte, pagne, pungar or punger, a kind of craw-fish (but 
la pagne, the piece of cotton worn by negroes round the loins) ; 
panache, plume of feathers (but une panache, a pea-hen) ; 
panegyrique, parachute, paradoxe, parafe, paragraphe, parallele, 
comparison, parallel (but une parallele, a parallel line) ; para- 
pluie, par jure, parterre, participe,pastenade, pastiche, patrimoine, 
pavie, pecule, pedicule, peigne, pendule, pendulum (but lapendule 9 
clock) ; pene, pentateuque, perinee, periode, pitch, summit (but 
la periode, period, interval, epoch) ; perpendicule, petale, 
phenomene, phare, phosphore, pique, spade at cards (but une 
pique, a grudge) ; pivoine, gnat-snapper (but la pivoine, peony) ; 
plane, plane tree (but une plane, a plane — tool) ; planisphere,, 
platane, platine, platinum (but la platine, round copper plate, 
scutcheon of a lock, apron of a cannon, plate of a watch) ; poele, 
stove, canopy, pall (but une poele, a frying-pan) ; pole, polype, 
ponche, ponte, a term used at cards (but la ponte, laying of 
eggs) ; porche, pore, porphyre, portique, pouce, preambule, pre- 
cepte, preche, prelude, prepuce, presbytere, parsonage ; pretexte, 
excuse, pretext (but la pretexte, pretexta, a robe worn by the 
ancient Eoman patricians) ; principe, projectile, prologue, prone, 
protocole, proverbe, pygmee, quadrille, the game of quadrille 
(but une quadrille, a troop of horse for a carousal, quadrille) ; 
quadrupede, quaterne, quelque chose, a thing, something ; e.g., 
il a fait quelque chose qui merit e d'etre blame, he has done a 
thing deserving of reprobation, he has committed a blameable 
action ; but quelque chose, used in the sense of whatsoever, is 
feminine ; e. g., quelque chose quil ait dite, on ne lui a pas 
repondu, whatsoever he did say, no one replied to him — all he 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL OF SUBSTANTIVES. 43 

could say, no one answered Him; quinconce, rale, regale, an 
organ pipe (but la regale, regal, royal right, prerogative) ; regne, 
reldche, rest, relaxation (but une reldche, harbour, road, bay) ; 
remede, renne, reproche, reptile, reve, reverbere, risque, rite 
(usually spelt rit), role, sacerdoce, saule, scandale, scarabee, 
scrupule, sexe, signe, silence, site, socque, solde, balance of an 
account (but la solde, pay) ; soliloque, spadille, splieroide, spondee, 
squelette, squirre, stade, stere, stigmates (plural — prints, marks), 
store, style, subside, sycomore, sycophante, symbole, synode, tartare, 
tartarus, hell; tele'graphe, ternes (plural — two treys), testicule, 
texte, tintamarre, tonnerre, topique, torse, trunk of a figure, term 
of sculpture (but une torse, a twisted piece of wood) ; tourne- 
bride, a kind of inn ; tournebroche, a roasting-jack (tourne-bride, 
tourne-broche, compounds of a verb and noun, and therefore 
masculine) ; triomphe, triumph (but une triomplie, a trump 
card) ; trone, trope, trophee, tropique, tube, tubercule, tumulte, 
type, ukase, ulcere, ustensile, vase, a vase, vessel (but la vase, 
slime, mud) ; vaudeville, vehicule, verbe, vermicelle, verre, vesti- 
bule, viatique, violoncelle, viscere, vitupere, voile, veil, crape, 
cover, pretence (but une voile, a sail, ship) ; vote, zele, zodiaque ; 
and also JBengale, Bigorre, JBosphore, JByzance, Coblence, 
CopepJiague, Gornouaille, Crete, Danube, Doming ue (St.), 
Dresde, Dunkerque, Elbe, EupJirate, Lampsaque, Maine, 
Mexique, Mozambique, Peloponnese, Ferclie, Rouergue, Ternate. 



Sect. II. Formation of the Plural of Substantives. 

The plural number of most substantives is formed by adding 
s to the singular; e. g., le roi, les rois ; un Jiomme, des hommes ; 
le voleur, les voleurs. 

Exceptions. 

1. Nouns ending in s, x, or z, remain the same in the plural ; 
e. g., lefils, les fits ; la croix, les croix ; le nez, les nez. 

2. Nouns ending in au and eu, add x in the plural ; e. g., un 
etau, des etaux ; un bateau, des bateaux ; lejeu, lesjeux. 

Remark. — Landau forms its plural in s. 

3. Bijou, caillou, choic, genou, joujou, liibou, pou, make their 
plural in x {bijoux, cailloux, &c.) The other nouns in ou follow 
the general rule, and add s in the plural; e.g., un trou, des 
trous ; lefilou, lesfilous. 



44 A GRAMMAR OE THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

4. Nouns in al change that final to aux in the plural ; e. g., 
un hopital, des hopitaux. 

Remark. — The following substantives in al follow the general rule and 
add s in the plural : (1) aval, endorsement of a bill of exchange, bal, bocal* 
cat, cantal (a sort of cheese), camaval, local* nopal (a sort of Indian fig), 
pal, regal (avals, bals, &c), — (2) chacal, serval, and other names of animals 
in al, with the exception of cheval, which makes chevaux in the plural. 

5. Sail, email, cor ail, soupirail, travail,^ vantail, change the 
final ail to aux in the plural (baux, emaux, &c). Ail, garlic, 
makes ails or aulx in the plural ; betail, cattle, has no plural 
(bestiaux, cattle, is a distinct plural noun). 

6. del, ceil, a'ieul, have a double plural. 

C makes dels in the sense of temperature, climate, and in ciels-de-lit, 
p. j J ciels-de-carriere, dels- de-tableaux. 
1 1 makes cieux in all other cases; e. g., les cieux annoncent la gloire 
[de Dieu, the heavens proclaim the glory of God. 

r makes ceils in ceils-de-bceuf, small oval windows, small lutherns 
or dormer-windows ; and in certain compound nouns beginning 
with ceil, as ; des ceils-de-chat, cat's-eyes (a sort of precious stone), 
Oeil\ &c. 

makes yeux in all other cases ; e. g., des yeux bleus, des yeux 
espiegles ; les yeux du pain, les yeux du bouillon, les yeux du 

Jromage ; tailler a, deux yeux, a trois yeux (term of gardening). 

r makes aieuls when intended to designate the paternal and 

maternal grandfather of an individual; e.g., il vient de perdre ses 

deux aieuls, he has just lost his two grandfathers. 

m. 7 j makes a'ieux in the sense of ancestors, forefathers ; e. g., nos a'ieux 

1 \ etaient plus forts que nous, our forefathers were stronger than we 

are ; cette petite maison est tout ce qui lui reste du beau domaine de 

ses a'ieux, this little house is all that remains to him of the fine 

w estate of his ancestors. 

7. Nouns in ant and ent, of more than one syllable, may 
suppress the t in the plural ; the more correct way, however, is 
to retain it, and to write des enfant s, des diamants, des apparte- 
ments, &c, instead of des enfans, diamans, appartemens, &c. In 
the case of monosyllables the suppression of the t in the plural 
is absolutely inadmissible {gens, folks, people, servants, which 
might seem an exception from this rule, is to be considered in 
the light of an independent plural noun, and not as the plural 
of gent, nation, tribe). 

* According to the Dictionary of the French Academy. 

f Travail has a double plural, travaux and travails; the latter, however, 
is used only to designate administrative reports, and also certain machines 
for the shoeing of vicious horses. 



PLUBAL OF COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES. 45 

8. Words essentially indeclinable do not receive the mark of 
the plural when accidentally employed as substantives ; e. g., 
les si et les mais ; les car ; lespourquoi; les on dit, &c. 

Proper Names of Persons. 

Proper names of persons remain the same in the plural as in 
the singular ; e. g., les deux Scott ont atteint aux plus hauts 
rangs de la magistrature, the two Scotts have reached the 
highest ranks on the bench ; Mouen a vu naitre les deux 
Corneille, Rouen is the birthplace of the two Corneilles. 

Exceptions. — We write generally in the plural, les Bourbons, 
les Conde's, les Guises, les Stuarts, probably because the proper 
name is used here as a title, or surname, intended to designate 
a certain class or family, rather than any particular individual 
member of that class or family, the names Bourbons, Conde's, 
Guises, Stuarts may be looked upon in some sort as synonymous 
with, and performing the function of, the common nouns kings, 
princes, applied to a certain class of individuals. 

When proper names are used to designate individuals similar 
to those denominated by them, they may properly be looked 
upon as common appellatives, and receive accordingly the usual 
mark in the plural ; e. g., les JByrons et les Shelley s sont bien 
plus rares que les Southeys et les Wordsworths. Poets like Byron 
and Shelley are much more rarely met with than your Southeys 
and Wordsworths. 

Remark. — Sometimes we find proper names preceded by the article les, 
although intended to designate only one individual ; e.g., les Racine et les 
Corneille ont illustre la scene francaise, Racine and Corneille have adorned 
the French stage. In cases of this kind the article is not intended to 
convey an idea of plurality to the mind, but simply to impart greater 
force and elegance to the expression. 

Formation of the Plural of Compound Substantives joined 
by a Hyphen. 

The general principle here is, that the mark of the plural 
can be affixed only to words to which an idea of plurality may 
attach ; accordingly — 

1. In compounds formed of a substantive and an adjective, 
both the former and the latter receive the mark of the plural ; 
e. g., une basse-taille, des basses-tailles ; un plain-chant, des 
plains-chants. 

Exceptions. — Des rouge-gorge {rouge-gorge, robin red-breast, 



46 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

is an elliptical form for oiseau a rouge gorge, bird with a red- 
breast, des rouge-gorge, accordingly, means simply des oiseaux 
a rouge-gorge, birds with a red- breast ; and therefore neither 
the substantive gorge, nor the adjective rouge, can receive the 
mark of the plural) ; des blanc-seings, blank bonds, signatures in 
blank ; des terre-pleins, platforms of earth, (in the former of 
these two instances no idea of plurality can attach to blanc, in 
the latter none to terre, the sense, accordingly, forbids the mark 
of the plural being attached to either of these words) ; des 
chevau-legers, light-horse, light cavalry (no other reason, save a 
somewhat fantastical custom, can be assigned for the omission 
of the x from the substantive chevaux in this compound) ; des 
grand? meres, des grand" messes (in these two latter instances 
the adjective remains invariable in obedience to the exigencies 
of pronunciation). 

Remark. — When there enters in the composition of a compound noun 
a word which is not used in an independent sense by itself, as is the case, 
for instance, in loup-garou, wehr-wolf, that word is looked upon in the 
light of an adjective, and receives accordingly the mark of the plural, des 
loups-garous. Except the initial particles vice, semi, quasi, ex, which remain 
always invariable ; e. g., les vice-presidents, des semi-tons, des quasi-delits, des 
ex-rois. 

2. In compounds formed of two substantives connected by 
a hyphen, without the intervention of a preposition, one of the 
two substantives is looked upon in the light of an adjective 
qualifying the other noun, and shares accordingly the mark of 
the plural with the other ; e.g., un chef-lieu, principal town of 
a district or province, des chefs-lieux; un chien-loup, wolf-dog, 
des chiens-loups ; un chou-fleur, cauliflower, des cJioux-fleurs. 

Exceptions. — Tin bec-figues, becafico (bird picking figs with 
its bill), des bec-jigues ; un appui-main, maulstick (support for 
the hand), des appuis-main (supports for the hand) ; un Hotel- 
Dieu, hospital (hotel de Dieu, house or inn of Grod), des Hotels- 
Dieu, houses or inns of Grod ; un breche-dents (person having a 
gap in the row of his teeth), des breche-dents (persons having a 
gap in their teeth) ; un bain-marie, balneum Marise* (bath of 
the prophetess Mary, who is said to have invented it), des 
bains-marie. In these cases no idea of plurality attaches to the 
words bee, main, Dieu, breche, marie, and accordingly they 
cannot receive the mark of the plural. 

3. In compounds formed of two substantives connected by 
means of a preposition, the first substantive takes the mark of 

* Some etymologists take bain-marie to be a corruption of balnevm 
TUKwis, which i& probably the more correct opinion of the two. 



PLURAL OF BORROWED WORDS. 47 

the plural; e.g., un chef d* ceuvre, masterpiece, des chefs d'ceuvre; 
un arc-en-ciel, rainbow, des arcs-en-ciel. 

Exceptions. — des coq-a-Vane (incoherent tales in which the 
narrator jumps from one subject to another not in the least 
connected with it), des pied-a-terre, des tete-a-tete. 

4. In compounds formed of a substantive and a verb (or 
preposition, or adverb), the substantive alone takes the mark of 
the plural (provided always there be an idea of plurality con- 
veyed by the word). Thus, for instance, we write with s in 
the plural, — des contre-coups, counter-buffs ; des avant-coureurs, 
forerunners ; des arriere-saisons, after-seasons : but without s, — 
des serre-tete, night-caps (bonnet covering or enclosing the 
head) ; des reveille-matin, alarums (clocks which serve to 
awaken people in the morning) ; des contre-poison, antidotes ; 
because no idea of plurality attaches here to the words tete, 
matin, and poison ; finally, we affix the s to the substantive 
both in the singular and plural in compounds like the following : 
— un essuie-mains, a towel (literally, wipe-hands), des essuie- . 
mains; un porte-mouchettes, snuffers-tray, des porte-mouchettes ; 
un cure-dents, a tooth-pick (literally, pick-teeth), des cure-dents, 

5. In compounds formed of words essentially indeclinable, 
such as verbs, prepositions, adverbs, none of the components can 
receive the mark of the plural ; e. g., des pour-boire, pot-money; 
des passe-partout, masterkeys ; des passe-passe, juggling-tricks. 

Plural of words borrowed from other languages. 

Foreign words on which frequent use has bestowed to some 
extent the right of citizenship in the French language, follow the 
general rule on the formation of the plural. "Write accordingly, 
des accessits, des agendas, des albums, des alibis, des alineas, 
des altos, des apartes, des bravos, des concettis, des debets, des 
deficits, des duos, des duplicatas, des erratas, des examens, des 
factotums, des factums, des folios, des impromptus, des ladys, 
des lazzis, des macaronis, des numeros, des operas, des oratorios, 
des panoramas, des pensums, des pianos, des placets, des 
quatuors, des quiproquos, des quolibets, des recepisses, des 
reliquats, des satisfecits, des solos, des specimens, des tilburys, 
des trios, des zeros. With regard to the words in Roman type, 
however, we must observe that the use of the s in the plural is 
not yet generally adopted. 

The following foreign words reject the mark of the French 
plural : — 

a. Alleluia, amen, ave, credo, pater, maximum. 



48 A GEAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

b, Foreign nouns formed of two or several words, connected 
by means of a hyphen: des post-scriptum, des in-folio, des 
in-octavo, des in-quarto, des mezzo-t ermine, des ecce-homo, des 
ex-voto, des facsimile, des auto-da-fe, des forte-piano. 

Exception. — Senatus-consulte, des senatus-consultes. 
We write also des Te Deuni. 

c. Nouns having a particular termination for the plural in 
the language from which they are respectively borrowed : 
quint etto, quint etti; carbonaro, carbonari; dilettante, dilettanti; 
lazarone, lazaroni. 



Sect. III. Complement of the Substantive. 

A word which serves to define and complete the idea conveyed 
to the mind by another word, is called the complement of the 
latter. Thus, in le palais du roi, the palace of the king (the 
king's palace), du roi is the complement of palais ; in le desir 
de plaire, the desire to please, de plaire is the complement of 
desir ; in un Jiomme enclin au vice, a man inclined to vice, au 
vice is the complement of enclin ; chacun de vous recevra trois 
francs par jour, each of you will receive three francs a day, de 
vous is the complement of chacun ; trois francs, and par jour 
are complements of recevra (sera recevant). 

The complement or regimen of a noun substantive is joined 
to that noun by means of the preposition de. The English 's, 
representing the possessive case, must therefore also be ren- 
dered in French by that preposition ; e. g., the king's palace, 
le palais du roi (de le roi — see page 24), the palace of the king ; 
my brother's house, la maison de mon frere, the house of my 
brother. 

Note. — In cases where the words dwelling, house, &c, are understood 
after the 's, the English prepositions at and to are rendered in French by 
chez, from by de chez, the 's being left untranslated ; e. g., I have been at 
my father's, Le., at my father's house, j'ai ete chez mon pere ; he is going to 
your brother's, i.e., your brother's residence, il va chez voire frere ; I come 
from your uncle's, i. e., from your uncle's residence or place, je mens de 
chez votre oncle, &c. The English expression at home is generally rendered 
in French by chez, followed by a personal pronoun corresponding to the 
person referred to ,* e.g., he was at home, il etait chez lui ; I shall be at 
home to-morrow, je serai chez moi demain. At home may, however, be 
expressed in French also by a la maison, au logis. 

This seems the proper place also, to give a few general hints 
on the rendering of certain English compounds into French. 
Compounds formed of two nouns, or of a noun and a participle 
present, are rendered in French by the interposition of either 



NOUNS OF MULTITUDE. 49 

the preposition de or a between the two components, the infini- 
tive being moreover substituted for the participle present. The 
preposition de is used in such cases, if the one of the components 
designates the material, species, quality, or place of origin of 
the other ; a, if it denotes its use or purpose, or conveys the idea 
of possession; e.g., silk-stockings, des has de soie ; Burgundy- 
wine, du vin de Bourgogne ; a marble table, une table de marbre; 
olive oil, de Vhuile a" olive ; a milk-jug, un pot au lait ; a wine- 
glass, un verre a vin; lamp-qil, de Vhuile a oruler ; a paper- 
mill, un moulin a papier ; a powder-box, une boite a poudre ; 
the fish-market, le marche aux poissons ; a black-eyed girl, une 
file aux yeux noirs. The preposition a is used also if one of 
the components denotes the physical agent by which the other 
is moved : un moulin a vent, a wind-mill ; un bateau a vapeur, a 
steam-boat ; and in certain compounds in the nomenclature of 
eatables and drinkables, if one of the components denotes the 
material, or one of the principal ingredients, of or with which 
the article denominated by the compound is made ; e. g., cream- 
cheese, fromage a la crime ; cabbage-soup, soupe aux choux ; 
milk-soup, potage au lait; brandy-punch, ponche a Veau de 
vie, &c. 

Nouns of Multitude. 

Nouns which, though standing in the singular, present to the 
mind the idea of several persons or things forming a collection, 
are called collective nouns, or nouns of multitude : nouns of this 
class are, for instance, armee, peuple, troupe, quantite, assembler 

Collective nouns are called general when they represent an 
entire, partitive when they represent only a partial, collection 
of persons or things ; e. g., general collectives-— 7a multitude des 
etoiles, the multitude of the stars ; V armee des Frangais, the army 
of the French : partitive collectives — une multitude a" etoiles, a 
multitude of stars ; nous avons vu unefoule de pauvres, we have 
seen a number of poor people, &c. As a general rule, a collective 
preceded by un or une is partitive. 



50 A GRAMMAR OF THE TRENCH LANGUAGE. 



CHAPTEB II. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

The adjectives are divided into qualificative and determinative 
adjectives. 

A. — Qualificative Adjectives. 

The qualificative adjective is grammatically dependent on the 
substantive (or pronoun) which it qualifies ; i. e., it agrees with 
it in gender and number ; e. g., un beau jar din, une belle maison; 
de beaux, arbres, de belles fieurs ; un homme prudent, unefemme 
prudente; des hommes prudents, des femmes prudentes ; Madame, 
vous etes bien bonne ; sa fille est muette ; il est devenu gros et 
gras ; V affaire me par ait assez belle ; nous ne sommes pas ingrats. 



Formation of tlie Feminine of Adjectives. 

General Mule. 

Add a mute e to the masculine; e.g., prudent, prudente ; 
vrai, vraie ; sense, sense'e ; brun, brune ; diffus, diffuse, &c. The 
verbal adjectives in ant, and the participles past* used in an 
adjectival capacity, follow the same rule ; e. g., charmant, 
chdrmante; aime, aimee, &c. 

Exceptions. 

1. Adjectives terminating in e mute serve for both genders ; 
e. g., un aimable garcon, une aimable fille ; un ami fidele, une 
amie fidele, &c. 

2. Adjectives in er place an accent grave over the e, and add 
e mute ; e.g., amer, amere ; entier, entiere. 

3. Adjectives ending in el, eil, ien, et, on, and s, double the 
final consonant, and add e mute; e.g., cruel, cruelle; pareil, 

* See chapter on the Participle. * 



FORMATION OF THE PLU11AL OF ADJECTIVES. 51 

pareille ; chretien, cliretienne ; net, nette ; bon, tonne; gras, 
grasse. 

Note. — Complet makes in the feminine complete ; concret, concrete; dis- 
cret, discrete ; secret, secrete ; inquiet, inquiete ; replet, replete ; instead of 
complette, concrette, discrette, secrette, inquiette, replettfr.' Mauvais, niais, ras, 
add e mute in the feminine ; tiers makes tierce ; expres and profits make 
expresse, prof esse. 

4. Gentil, nul, paysan, bellot, sot, vieillot, make in the feminine 
gentille, nulle, paysanne, bellotte, sotte, vieillotte. 

5. Adjectives ending in f and x, make their feminine re- 
spectively in ve and se ; e. g., actif, active ; vertueux, vertueuse ; 

jahux, jalouse. 

ISTote. — Doux makes in the feminine douce ; faux and roux make fausse, 
rousse ; prefix makes prefixe, and vieux, vieille (the latter from the second 
form of the masculine, vieil). 

6. Aigu, amhigu, begu, contigu, exigu, add e mute marked with 
a diaeresis : aigue, amhigue, &c. 

7. Jumeau, beau, nouveau, fou, niou, make in the feminine 
jumelle, belle, nouvelle, folle, molle. The latter four have also 

a second form for the masculine ; bel, nouvel, fol, mol, which is 
used before a vowel or mute h : e. g., un bel enfant, le nouvel 
habit, unfol amour, de mol e'dredon. 

8. Blanc, franc, sec, frais, make in the feminine blanclie, 
franche, seche,fraiche : ammoniac, public, turc, caduc, change the 
final c to que in the feminine ; ammoniaque, publique, turque, 
caduque: grec makes grecque : long, oblong make longue, oblong ue; 
benin, malm make benigne, maligne ; coi (quiet, still) , favori 
make coite, favorite ; devin makes devineresse. 

9. The so-called adjectives in eur and teur have already been 
treated of in the chapter on the Substantive, to which the 
student is referred (vide p. 32). • 

The real adjectives in eur follow the general rule : majeur, 
majeure ; mineur, mineure ; meilleur, meilleure ; exterieur, 
exterieure ; citerieur, citerieure, &c. 

10. Temoin and grognon serve for both genders : aquilin, 
clidtain, dispos,fdt, are not used in the feminine. 



Formation of the Plural of Adjectives. 

The adjectives form their plural by adding s to the singular, 
both of the masculine and feminine ; with respect to the latter 
gender the rule is universal, all the exceptions given here 
referring exclusively to the masculine form. 

d2 



52 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

'Exceptions, 

1. Adjectives ending in s and x remain unchanged in the 
plural masculine ; e. g., un gros g argon, de gros gar cons ; un 
nuage epais, des nuages epais ; un objet Mdeux, des objets Mdeux, 

2. Adjectives ending in au add x in the plural masculine ; 
e. g., de beaux jar dins, des enfants jumeaux. 

3. Most adjectives ending in al form their plural masculine 
by changing al to aux ; e. g., egal, egaux ; brutal, brutaux : 
moral, moraux ; partial, partiaux ; loyal, log aux ; deloyal, 
deloyaux, &c. 

A few, however, form their plural masculine by adding s to 
the singular, in obedience to the general rule ; these are princi- 
pally the following : amical, bancal, fatal, filial, final, fiscal, 
glacial, initial, matinal, nasal, naval, pascal, penal, thedtral, and 
a few more, which are very rarely used in the plural masculine. 

Custom sanctions equally the formation of the plural in als 
and in aux, of the following adjectives in al : austral, colossal, 
doctoral, ducal, frugal, and natal. 

The following adjectives in al are not used in the plural 
masculine, as they only accompany feminine substantives : 
beneficial, canonial, diagonal, diametral, experimental, medicinal, 
mental, patronal, virginal, vocal, zodiacal, and a few more. 

4. The adjectives in ant and ent may reject the t in the 
plural ; the more correct way, however, is to retain the t, and 
to write, for instance, des livres charmants (instead of cliarmans), 
des Jiommes prudents (instead of prudens), &c. The adjective 
lent (slow), as a monosyllable, must, of course, always retain 
the t . 

5. The plural masculine of tout is tons. 

Comparison of Adjectives (Participles and Adverbs), 

The comparative of equality is formed in French by putting 
one of the adverbs aussi (as, so), autant* (as much, so much), 
before the adjective, the as of the second link of the comparison 
being rendered by que ; e. g., mon frere est aussi grand que le 
voire, my brother is as tall as yours ; le fits rfetait pas aussi 
Jieureux que le pere, the son was not so happy as the father ; il 
est autant estime que cheri, he is as much esteemed as beloved. 
In negative sentences, si and tant may be used instead of aussi 

* Aussi is used with adjectives, autant with past-participles; autant may 
Btand also after the participle. 



COMPAHISON OF ADJECTIVES. 53 

and auiant ; e. g., il n'est pas si ricJie que vous, he is not so rich 
as you ; rien ne rr£a tant fdche que cette nouvelle, nothing has 
vexed me so much as this news. 

The comparative of inferiority is formed by putting the adverb 
moms (less), before the adjective (the than of the second link 
of the comparison being rendered by que) ; e. g., Barnave etait 
moins eloquent que Mirabeau, Barnave was less eloquent than 
Mirabeau. 

The comparative of superiority is formed by putting the 
adverb plus (more) before the adjective, the than of the second 
link of the comparison being equally rendered by que; e.g., 
Jean est plus riche que Pierre, John is richer than Peter. 

Notes. — Plus and moins, used as adverbs of quantity, require de after 
them instead of que : cette affaire lui a coute plus de trois mille livres ; il est 
•plus d' a demi mort ; du vin plus d' a moitie bu ; il n'e donne jamais moins 
de deux livres, &c. 

The English, preposition by, used after a comparative, is rendered in 
French by de ; e. g., he is taller than his brother by two inches, il est plus 
grand que son frere de deux pouces ; London is larger than Paris by far, 
Londres est plus grand que Paris de beaucoup. 

In sentences containing two comparatives, the one consequent on and 
corresponding with the other, the English language makes use of the 
definite article before both comparatives, whereas the French language 
puts the single comparative adverb without the article ; thus, expressions 
like the more — the more, the more — the less, the richer — the poorer, &c are 
rendered into French respectively by plus — plus, plus — moins, plus — riche, 
plus — pauvre, &c. ; e. g., the longer the day the shorter the night, plus le 
jour est long, plus la nuit est courte ; the more he earns, the less he spends, 
plus il gagne, moins il depense, &c. 

The English expressions so much the more, so much the less, are rendered 
in French by d'autant plus, d'autant moins; e.g., his conduct in this 
matter is so much the more praiseworthy, as he has acted to the detriment 
of his own interests, sa conduite dans cette affaire est d'autant plus louable 
quJil en a agi au detriment de ses propres inter ets. 

We have three adjectives in French (and also three adverbs) which 
express in themselves a comparative of superiority, viz., the adjectives 
meilleur, better (comparative of bon, good), pire, worse (comparative of 
mauvais, bad), and moindre, less, lesser, smaller (comparative of petit, 
little) ; however, of the two latter adjectives, the regular comparatives, 
plus mauvais, plus petit* are equally used; and the adverbs mieux, better 
(comparative of Men, well), moins, less (comparative of peu, little), and pis, 
worse (comparative of mal, badly); however, of the latter adverb the 
regular form of the comparative plus mal is also used. 

"We have two sorts of superlatives, viz., the absolute and the 
relative. 

The superlative absolute of superiority or inferiority, expresses 
the highest or lowest degree in a general sense, and without 

* Moindre is used more as a term of value ; plus petit, as a term of 
measure. 



54 A GRAMMAR, OE THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

implying an idea of comparison with other persons or things ; 
it is formed by putting the adverbial locutions le plus, le mieux, 
le moins, before the adjective ; e. g., voire soeur ne pleure pas, 
lors meme quelle est le plus qffligee, your sister sheds no tears, 
even when she is most afflicted, &c. 

The superlative relative of superiority or inferiority is formed 
by prefixing the articles le, la, les (or one of the possessive 
adjectives, mon, ton, &c), to the comparative of superiority or 
inferiority ; e. g., V amour propre est le plus grand de tous les 
Jlatteurs, self-love is the greatest of all flatterers ; la gloire des 
conquetes est la moins desirable, the glory of conquests is the 
least desirable. 

Note. — In the superlative relative the article must be prefixed to the 
comparative, no matter whether the adjective precedes or follows the 
noun ; accordingly, "if the noun happens to precede the adjective, the 
article must be repeated before the adverb of comparison ; e. g., la nation 
la plus belliqueuse du monde, the most warlike nation in the world. 

The French language uses, besides the regular adverbs of 
comparison, also certain other adverbs to graduate, increase, or 
modify the force of the two degrees of comparison, and also of 
the positive degree. The force of the positive degree is increased 
\) j fort, tres, Men (very), extremement (extremely, exceedingly), 
infiniment (infinitely), trop (too, overmuch) ; e. g., il est tres 
riche, he is very wealthy ; elle est bien dgee, she is very old ; le 
style de Fenelon est fort coulant, et infiniment doux. The force 
of the positive is diminished or modified by mediocrement, 
passablement (moderately, tolerably) : il n'est que mediocrement 
instruit ; il est passablement riche. 

The force of the comparative degree is increased by beaucoup, 
bien, infiniment, meme, encore; e.g., il est bien plus riche que 
son frere, he is much richer than his brother ; elle est encore 
plus belle que sa soour, she is still more beautiful than her sister ; 
il est plus riche meme que son maitre, he is wealthier even than 
his master.' The force of the comparative is diminished or 
modified by un peu (a little), tant soit peu (somewhat; ever 
so little) ; e. g., il est un peu plus grand que son frere, he 
is a little taller than his brother ; votes Vauriez vu passer, si 
vous etiez venu tant soit peu plus tot, you would have seen him 
pass, if you had come a little (ever so little) sooner. 

The force of the superlative relative is increased by du monde, 
possible, &c. ; e. g., son pere etait Vhomme le plus obligeant du 
monde ; revenez le plus tot possible. 



AGREEMENT OF THE ADJECTIVE. 55 

Agreement of the Adjective tvith the Noun which it qualifies. 

I. As has already been observed, the adjective agrees in 
gender and number with the noun or pronoun which it 
qualifies.* 

Exceptions. 

1. When a noun is followed by two adjectives one of which 
qualifies the other, both adjectives remain invariable ; e.g., 
des cheveux chdtain clair, light chesnut hair; des etoffes rose 
iendre, &c. In locutions of this kind the first adjective is 
looked upon in the light of a substantive (des cheveux d'un 
chdtain clair, des etoffes d'un rose tend / re, stuffs of a soft rose 
colour) . 

2. The adjective nu (naked), when placed before the sub- 
stantives bras, cou, jambes, pieds, tete, remains invariable, 
forming with the noun a species of adverbial locution ; nu-tete, 
bareheaded ; nu-pieds, barefoot, &c. But in all other cases, nu 
agrees in gender and number with the noun which it qualifies : 
toute nue, la verite doit deplaire ; conserver la nue propriete a"un 
bien; une morale nue cause de V ennui ; avoir les Iras nus, &c. 

3. The adjective demi (half), when placed before the sub- 
stantive which it qualifies, remains invariable, forming with 
the noun a kind of compound substantive : une demi-heure, une 
demi-livre. Placed after the noun, it agrees with it in gender, 
but remains always in the singular : un mois et demi, une heure 
et demie, quatre pieds et demi. Employed in a substantive 
capacity, as in une demie (half), deux demies font un entier (two 
halves make a whole), it takes the mark of the plural. 

3. The adjective feu (deceased, late) remains invariable when 
it precedes the article or a possessive adjective : feu la reine, 
the late queen; but it agrees with the noun when placed 
immediately before it : votrefeue mere, your late mother. 

Remark.— -E^c^te' suppose, passe, being participles, and not adjectives, 
in the proper acceptation of the word, the student will find the requisite 
information respecting them in the chapter on the Participle. 

II. When the adjective (or participle used in an adjectival 
capacity) refers to two or several substantives or pronouns, it is 
put in the plural ; and, if the substantives or pronouns happen 
to be of different genders, in the masculine ; e. g\, son pcre et 

* The adjective used in an adverbial capacity to qualify a verb, is 
always invariable ; e. g., its marchent vite, they walk fast ; ces dames parlsnt 
trop has, these ladies speak too low. 



56 A GRAMMAR OP THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

son maitre sont contents ; il a montre une prudence et un courage 
etonnants. 

Note. — When two substantives of different genders are qualified by an 
adjective having a distinct termination for the two genders, as bon, bonne; 
grand, grande ; discret, discrete ; the ear demands that the masculine noun 
be enunciated last : thus, in the above sentence for instance, it would be 
wrong to enunciate prudence last instead of courage. 

Exceptions. 

An adjective qualifying two or several substantives of kindred 
import, and which are not joined by the conjunction et (and), 
agrees with the last noun, as the one which strikes the mind 
most : il a montre un courage, un sang-froid etonnant ; toute sa 
vie n'a ete qyCun travail, qui une occupation continuelle. The 
adjective agrees also with the last noun only, if the two nouns 
are joined (or rather severed) by the disjunctive conjunction ou 
(or) : un courage ou une prudence etonnante. 

Compound Adjectives. 

1. In compound adjectives formed of two adjectives, both 
components agree in gender and number with the noun qualified 
by the compound. Compounds of this kind are : aveugle-ne, 
blind-born ; premier-ne, first-born ; mort-ne, still-born ; ivre- 
mort, dead-drunk ; sourd-muet, deaf and dumb ; e. g., des hommes 
ivres-morts, desfemmes sourdes-muettes. 

Exceptions. 

a. The adjectives mi, demi, semi, remain always invariable in 
compound adjectives formed with them; e. g., une etoffe mi- 
partie blanche et noire; des visitations semi-periodiques ; des 
nations demi-civilisees. 

b. When the first component of a compound adjective is used 
adverbially, the second adjective alone agrees in gender and 
number with the noun qualified by the compound : compounds 
of this kind are, for instance, nouveau-ne (new-born), in which 
the adjective nouveau answers the purpose of the adverb nouvel- 
lement (newly; newly-born) ; clair-seme (thin-sown, scarce, thin), 
in which the adjective clair stands for the adverb clairement 
(thinly; thinly sown) ; aigre-doux (sour-sweet, sourish, sourish- 
sweet), in which the adjective aigre, stands for the adverb aigre- 
ment (sourly, sourishly ; sourly, or sourishly-sweet), &c. 

Remark. — Frais-cueilli and tout-puissant, though belonging to the same 
category of compounds as nouveau-ne, &c, make in the feminine singular, 



PLACE OF THE ADJECTIVE. 57 

fraiche-caeillie, toute-puissante, and in the feminine plural, fraiches-cueillies, 
toutes-puissantes, in obedience simply to the demands of euphony. 

2. In compound adjectives formed of an invariable word 
(adverb or preposition) and an adjective, or participle used in 
an adjectival capacity, as, bien-aime, well-beloved ; bien-venu, 
welcome ; mal-avise, imprudent ; mal-bdti, ill-shaped ; contre- 
revolutionnaire, counter-revolutionary, anti-revolutionary ; the 
adjective or participle alone can receive the respective marks of 
the feminine and of the plural : e. g., des enfants bien-aime's ; les 

' contre-revolutionnaires ; Marie Antoinette etait mal-avisee. 

3. The two compound adjectives breche-dents (having a gap 
in one's teeth) and chevre-pieds (goat-footed, having feet like a 
goat), are, of course, invariable ; un homme breche-dents ; an dieu 
chevre-pieds, des dieux chevre-pieds. 

Place of the Adjective. 

In the English language the adjective is commonly set before 
the noun which it qualifies ; in French the reverse is the case. 
However, as there are exceptions from the rule in English, so 
there are, and more numerous still, in French. Of course, a 
complete set of rules on the subject, embracing every possible 
contingency, cannot well be given in an elementary work like 
the present, and the student must therefore rest satisfied here 
with the most general and essential rules. ■ 

1. After the substantive are placed : — 

a. Adjectives denoting a physical property (colour, shape, 
taste, &c), as rond, vert, blanc, oval, amer, acide ; e.g., une 
table ronde, a round table ; une figure ovale, an oval figure ; un 
gout amer, a bitter taste ; un fruit acide, an acid fruit ; un habit- 
vert, a green dress, a green coat ; un chapeau noir, a black 
hat, &c. 

b. Adjectives expressing the names of nations ; e. g., un 
vaisseau anglais, an English vessel; Varmee frangaise, the 
French army, &c. 

c. Participles past used in an adjectival capacity ; e. g., un 
enfant cheri, a beloved child ; une armee vaincue, a vanquished 
host, &c. 

d. Dis- and poly-syllabic adjectives when qualifying a mono- 
syllabic noun ; e. g., un nom celebre, a famous name ; un don 
pre'cieux, a precious gift ; un cas douteux, a doubtful case ; un 
temps orageux, stormy weather ; un prix fabuleux, a fabulous 
price ; des onurs inebranlables, solid, immoveable walls, &c. 

e. Adjectives modified by an adverb, or followed by a 

d 3 



58 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

regimen ; e. g., un Monsieur infiniment poli ; un Jtomme enclin a 
V avarice, &c. However, if an adjective usually occupying a 
position before the noun, is modified by one of the shorter 
adverbs, tres, lien, &c, the presence of the adverb need make 
no difference in the usual position of the adjective ; e. g., il a 
fait un tres beau cadeau a sa fiancee, he has made his bride a 
very fine present, &c. 

f Two or several adjectives referring to the same noun are 
usually placed after the substantive, and the last of them is 
joined to the preceding one by a conjunction* ; e.g., un homnie 
jeune, beau, et riche ; une femme bonne, aimable et vertueuse. 
We may say, however, le vice a terni les grandes et admirables 
qiialites de cet Jiomme, vice has tarnished the great and admirable 
qualities of this man ; il a fait de longs et penibles efforts ; les 
grandes et fortes pensees viennent du coeur; de belles et memorables 
actions ; unefausse et trompeuse felicite, &c. 

2. Before the substantive are placed : — 

a. Monosyllabic adjectives, with the exception of those 
denoting a physical property (vide 1, a) ; e. g., un long discours; 
unfol amour; un bel edifice; un beau g argon, &c. 

b. Adjectives qualifying a noun followed by a regimen, are 
usually placed before the noun; e. g., Milton, Vimmortel auteur 
du Paradis perdu ; V elegant traducteur de Camoehs, &c. 

c. The following generally precede the noun : ancien, brave, 
chetifi digne, divers, dernier, joli, jeune, onauvais, mediant, 
meilleur, moindre, petit, riche, sage, triste, vilain, vieux ; except 
when happening to form one of a set of several adjectives 
qualifying the same noun. 

3. A great many adjectives, more particularly those ending 
in e mute (except in esque, igue, and ule), have their place 
assigned them either before or after the noun, almost entirely 
as a matter of taste : un veritable ami — un ami veritable ; une 
charmante fille — une fille charmante ; un aimable enfant— r-un 
enfant aimable, &c. 

4. When an adjective qualifies a proper name (in which case 
it is always preceded by the article), its respective position 
before or after the proper name serves to give a different 
meaning to the locution ; viz., if the adjective stands after the 
name, it serves as an epithet, distinguishing the person to 
whom it is affixed from all others of the same name ; whereas, 
preceding the noun, it simply denotes a quality which may be 

* As regards the conjunction et, this is omitted whenever the adjectives 
are of analogous import (synonymous) : dme grande, magnanime. 



GOVERNMENT OP THE ADJECTIVE. 



59 



common to many ; e. g., le spirituel Sidney, the witty Sidney ; 
Sidney le spirituel, Sidney the witty ; le sage et pieux Fe'nelon ; 
Charles le sage, &c. 

5. In the following locutions, the different position of the 
adjective imparts a different meaning to the noun : — 



un bon homme 
un homme bon 
un brave homme 

un homme brave 
un cruel homme 
un homme cruel 
une fausse corde 
une corde fausse 
une fausse clef 
une clef fausse 
une fausse porte 
une porte fausse 
un furieux animal 
un animal furieux 
un grand homme 
un homme grand 
une grosse femme 
une femme grosse 
un honnete homme 
un homme honnete 
nouveau vin 
vin nouveau 
unpauvre homme 
un homme pauvre 
un plaisant homme 
un homme, plaisant 
un petit homme 
un homme petit 
un vilain homme 
un homme vilain 

and perhaps a few more. 



a simple harmless fellow. 

an honest upright man. 

a good honest man (a safe man to deal 

with — commercial term). 
a valiant man, a brave man. 
a troublesome fellow, a bore, 
a cruel man. 
a string out of tune, 
a false or bad string. 
a false key. 
a wrong key. 
a secret door. 
a sham door, 
a huge animal. 
a furious animal. 
a great man. 
a tall man. 
a stout woman. 
a woman in the family way. 
a good, honest, upright man. 
a well-bred man. 
fresh wine, a new sort of wine, 
new wine. 

a simpleton, a poor tool. 
a poor man. 
a ridiculous fellow. 
a pleasant fellow, 
a little man, a short man. 
a mean, contemptible, pitiful fellow. 
an ugly man. 
a nasty sordid fellow. 



Government oftlie Adjective. 

Some adjectives express absolute qualities, and convey 
accordingly of themselves a definite and complete meaning. 
Of this class are, for instance, bon, beau, grand, vertueux ;* 
others require the addition of a complement for the full and 
complete enunciation of the quality which they are intended to 
express ; to this class belong, for instance, enclin, digne, propre, 



* The adjectives belonging to this class may, however, also have a com- 
plement added to them to modify or define within more narrow limits the 
quality which they denote ; e. g., beau a, voir; du vin bon a boire, &c. 



60 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

capable, plein, &c; e. g., un homme enclin au vice, a man inclined 
to vice ; une conduite indigne d'une grande nation, a conduct 
unworthy of a great nation ; un garcon plein d 'esprit, &c. 

The complement or regimen of an adjective is expressed by a 
preposition followed by a substantive, pronoun, or infinitive, 
dependent on that preposition. 

The prepositions governed by the French adjectives do not 
always correspond with those governed by their English 
synonymes. It may be laid down as a general rule, that 
French adjectives (or participles used adjectively) denoting 
abundance, plenitude, want, scarcity, absence, privation, desire, 
regret, satisfaction, dissatisfaction, capacity, and other ideas of 
kindred import, govern the preposition de ; e. g., je suis content 
de mon cheval, I am pleased with my horse ; la chambre est pleine 
defumee, the room is full of smoke, &c. 

French adjectives denoting aptness, fitness, disposition, incli- 
nation, tendency, leaning, purpose, resemblance, conformity, govern 
the preposition a. 

Adjectives denoting kindness or unkindness of feeling or 
disposition towards individuals, take envers before their com- 
plement. 

Some require avec, others sous, others pour, &c. It would 
lead us, however, too far, to pursue this subject more in 
detail. 

Two adjectives may have one and the same complement, 
provided they happen to govern both the same preposition ; 
thus, we may say, il est utile et cher a sa famille, he is useful 
and dear to his family : but if the two adjectives require 
different prepositions, as, for instance, utile which demands a, 
and cheri (beloved) which demands de, the proper complement 
must be given to each of them, and w^e must say, il est utile a 
sa famille, et en est cheri. 

Adjectives of Dimension* 

The English adjectives of dimension, long, wide, broad, thick, 
high, deep, may be rendered in French either by the corre- 
sponding adjective or by the corresponding substantive, with 
the preposition de preceding either the adjective or substantive 
of dimension, or the numeral denoting the extent of the 
dimension, or both : cette tour a trois cents pieds de hauteur, 
this tower is three hundred feet high ; cette tour est haute de 
trois cents pieds ; un jar din de cent soixante pieds de long (or 
de longueur) ; une colonne haute de cent dix-sept pieds. 



OBSERVATIONS ON THE QUALIFICATIVE ADJECTIVES. 61 

In cases where there are two dimensions given, the English 
preposition by or conjunction and, as the case may be, is 
rendered in French by the preposition sur, which is substituted 
for the second de ; e.g., une galerie de trois cents pieds de 
longueur sur trente {pieds understood) de largeur, a gallery 
three hundred feet long and thirty wide, a gallery three 
hundred feet by thirty, i. e., three hundred feet (long) by 
thirty (feet wide). 

Some additional observations on the Qualificative Adjective. 

1. An adjective standing as attribute to several substantives 
placed in order of gradation, agrees with the last noun (which 
forms the climax) : lefer, le bandeau, la flamme est toute prete. 

2. An adjective standing as attribute to several substantives 
or pronouns followed by a collective or resuming expression 
(i.e., an expression referring to the words preceding collectively, 
or to each of them separately ; as, tout, rien, nul, chacun, 
personne, aucun), agrees with the resuming expression : la 
fortune, les honneurs, la gloire, tout fat digne de lui. 

3. An adjective standing as attribute to two substantives 
(or pronouns), connected by one of the conjunctions comme, 
de meme que, ainsi que, aussi bien que, agrees with the first of 
the two : Vautruche a la tete, ainsi que le cou, garnie de duvet. 

4. When a noun of multitude accompanied by a substantive 
complement is followed by a qualificative adjective, the latter 
agrees either with the noun of multitude, or with the substan- 
tive complement ; as a general rule, with the former if it 
happens to be a general collective : la totalite des enfants, 
incapable de prevoyance, ne voit que le present ; with the latter, 
if the collective happens to be partitive : une troupe de jeunes 
files timides et inquietes. 

5. The qualificative adjective must always clearly and dis- 
tinctly refer to a word expressed in the sentence. Thus it is 
incorrect, for instance, to say, jaloux des droits de sa couronne, 
son unique ambition etait de la transmettre a ses successeurs 
(jealous of the rights of his crown, his only ambition was to 
transmit it to his successors), since the adjective jaloux refers 
here to none of the words enunciated in the sentence. Riche 
et puissant, vous on'avez toajours ete fidele (rich and powerful, 
you have always been faithful to me). In this sentence it is 
not clearly apparent whether the two adjectives refer to vous or 
to me ; this ambiguity may readily be avoided by giving another 
turn to the sentence, as thus : vous m'avez ete toujours fidele, 



b:l A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

quand vous etiez (or, as the case may be, quand fetais) riche et 
puissant. 

The same rule applies equally to the participles present and 
past. 

6. In the French language, the adjective is never allowed to 
impose the law of accordance on the substantive (as it is 
occasionally in English, in expressions such as " Dictionary of 
the 'French and German languages ") ; locutions, therefore, such 
as " les litteratures francaise et allemande ; les langues anglaise 
et italienne; les histoires ancienne et moderne" are grammatical 
blunders. Phrases of this kind are elliptical, and each of the 
two adjectives refers in reality to a .separate noun — the one to 
the noun expressed, the other to a noun understood ; the actual 
meaning of them is respectively, la litterature francaise et (la 
litterature) allemande; la langue anglaise et (lalangue) italienne; 
Vhistoire ancienne et (l'histoire) moderne ; therefore, either the 
noun should be repeated, or the article prefixed to the second 
adjective : Vhistoire ancienne et Vhistoire moderne, or, Vhistoire 
ancienne et la moderne ; la litterature francaise et la litterature 
allemande, or, la litterature francaise et V allemande. The 
same rule holds equally good with regard to the ordinal 
numeral adjectives, le premier, le second, &c. ; and also with 
regard to Vun et V autre (both). Do not say, then, les premier 
et second Stages ; les cinquieme et sixieme chapitres ; Vun et 
V autre metaux ; but say, le premier et le second etage; le 
cinquieme et le sixieme chapitre ; Vun et V autre metal. 

7. Adjectives which are properly applicable to persons only, 
as consolable, inconsolable, intentionne, ought not to be applied 
to things: and vice versa, adjectives properly applicable to 
things only, as pardonnable, impardonnable, contestable, incon- 
testable, inestimable, inevitable, ought not to be applied to 
persons. Do not say, therefore, for instance, la douleur de la 
mere etait inconsolable, the grief of the mother was inconsolable, 
de tous ces criminels il est le moins pardonnable : rather give 
another turn to the phrase, and say, la mere etait inconsolable 
dans sa douleur, the mother was inconsolable in her grief; de 
tous ces criminels il (est celui qui) merite le moins qu^on lui 
pardonne, of all these criminals he (is the one who) deserves 
the least to be forgiven. 

The Academy sanctions the use of deplorable both for things 
and persons ; it would, however, certainly appear more correct 
to confine its application to the former. 



POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. 63 

B. Determinative Adjectives. 

We divide the determinative adjectives into three classes, 
viz., the demonstrative adjectives, the possessive adjectives, and 
the indefinite determinative adjectives. 

The numerals, which are generally classed by grammarians 
with the determinative adjectives, will be treated of in a sepa- 
rate chapter. 

1. The Demonstrative Adjective. 

Singular. 
Masculine. Feminine. 

ce, cet (this, that). cette (this, that). 

Plural. . 

Both genders. 

ces (these, those). 

Ce is placed before nonns masculine commencing with a 
consonant or an aspirated h, cet before nouns masculine com- 
mencing with a vowel or a mute h; e. g., ce soldat ; ce heros — 
cet officier ; cet habit. 

The particles ci (here), and la (there), are often added to 
the noun, to impart greater force and precision to the demon- 
strative adjective; e. g., ce livre-ci est fort lien ecrit, this book 
(here) is very well written ; cet homme-la veut vous parler, that 
man (there) wishes to speak to you ; cette colonne-ci rfest pas 
si haute que celle de la Dlace Vendome, this column (here) is not 
so high as that of the Place Vendome ; donnez-moi cette fieur- 
la, give me that flower (there). 

The demonstrative adjective ce must not be confounded with 
the demonstrative pronoun ce ; the former always precedes a 
substantive, the latter is invariably joined to the verb etre, or 
followed by the pronouns que, ¥ qui, quoi, dont : ce sont des 
voleurs ; c 'est un mauvais garnement ; ce qui convient a Jean ne 
convient pas toujours a Pierre; ce dont je vous avertis; ce a quoi 
je pense ; ce que son fr ere vient de me dire. 

The rules for the repetition of the demonstrative adjectives, 
are the same as those for the repetition of the article (see p. 28). 

2. Possessive Adjectives. 
Singular. 



Masculine. 




Feminine. 


mon 

ton 

son 


my 
thy 
his, her, its. 


ma. 

ta. 

sa. 


tre, our. 


Both genders. 

voire, your. 


leur, th 



64 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

Plural. 

Both genders. 

mes my. nos, our. 

tes, thy. vos, your. 

ses, his, her, its. leurs, their. 

Mon, ton, son, are substituted for ma, ta, sa, before nouns 
feminine commencing with a vowel or mute h ; e. g., mon amie; 
ton Jiumeur; son inconstance: the ear demands this substitution. 



Observations. 

1. The possessive adjective agrees in French invariably with 
the noun to which it is prefixed; and not, as is the case in 
English, with the noun representing the possessor : e. g., il 
aime s&fille, he loves his daughter ; elle aime son pere, she loves 
her father. 

2. When speaking to a person, with whom we are not on 
familiar terms, of his or her relations, politeness requires that 
we should put Monsieur, Madame, Mademoiselle, Messieurs, 
Mesdames, Mesdemoiselles, before the possessive adjective ; e. g., 
Comment se porte Madame votre mere ? How is your mother ? 
Je viens de rencontrer Mesdemoiselles vos soeurs, I have just met 
your sisters. 

3. In addressing relations, custom requires the possessive 
adjective before the term of relationship ; e. g., venez ici, ma 
sceur, come here, sister : except before Tap a and Maman. 

4<. "When speaking of a part of the body, or of a physical or 
intellectual condition or faculty, clearly appertaining to the 
subject of the sentence, the French language uses the article 
instead of the possessive adjective, since in such cases no doubt 
or ambiguity can possibly exist as to the person in whom the 
possession lies ; e. g., <Pai mal a la tete, I have a pain in my 
head ; il a recu un coup de feu au bras droit, he received a shot 
in his right arm ; sajllle a perdu Yappetit, his (or her) daughter 
has lost her appetite. If the part of the body, or the physical 
or intellectual condition or faculty, is represented as affected 
by the act of the subject of the sentence, a personal or reflective 
pronoun indicating the person to whom the part, &c, so affected 
appertains, is joined to the verb ; e. g., nous nous sommes lave 
les mains, we have washed our hands (we have to ourselves 
washed the hands) ; le barbare leur jit arracher les yeux, the 
barbarian had their eyes torn out, ordered their eyes to be torn 
out (the barbarian to them had the eyes torn out) ; elle me 
prit la main, she took my hand; rincez-Yous, la bouche, wash 



INDEFINITE DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVES. 65 

your mouth (wash to yourself the mouth) ; tenez-lui la tete, 
hold his (or her) head (hold to him, or her, the head), &c. 

Remark. — The possessive adjective is used to designate an habitual 
complaint ; e. g., ma migraine m'a repris, my headache has come back 
again ; sa goutte le tourmente, his gout plagues him. Custom sanctions also 
the redundant use of the possessive adjective in some familiar expressions, 
as, il se tient firme sur ses pieds, he stands firm on his legs ; elle Va vu de 
ses yeux, or de ses propres yeux, she has seen it with her eyes, or with her 
own eyes. 

5. When the possession lies in an inanimate object, the 
possessive adjectives son, sa, ses, leur, leurs, corresponding to 
the English its (in some rare cases his, her) and their, can be 
used only if the possessing word forms the subject of the 
sentence ; e. g., la campagne a ses agrements, the country has its 
charms ; V Angleterre est protegee 'par ses flottes, England is 
protected by her fleets ; chacun a son gout : Londres a ses 
pares, Paris ses pares d'artillerie. But if the possessing word 
does not form the subject of the sentence, the possessive 
adjectives son, sa, ses, leur, leurs, are replaced by the article 
and the personal pronoun of the third person, en; e. g., J' halite 
la campagne, les agrements en sont sans nornbre ; regardez ce 
tableau, n'en admirez votes pas la beaute ? look at that picture, 
do you not admire its beauty ? 

Remark. — The possessive adjective is used, however, if the word de- 
noting the object possessed happens to be the complement of a preposition; 
e.g., fai vu Pans, f admire la beaute de ses edifices; I have seen Paris, 
I admire the beauty of its buildings. 

6. "With regard to the repetition or non-repetition of the 
possessive adjective, the rules are the same as those laid down 
for the repetition of the article (see p. 28). 



3. Indefinite Determinative Adjectives. 

Aucun, aucune, with the negation, no one, none, no; without the nega- 
tion aucun signifies any. Plural, aucuns, aucunes. 

Certain, certaine. Plural, certains, certaines, certain, some. 

Chaque (of both genders, — no plural), each, every. 

Maint, mainte, many a, many a one. Plural, maints, maintes, many. 

Meme (both genders), same, self. Plural, mimes (both genders). Advej b, 
mime, even. 

Nul, nulle (requires the negation before the verb) no one, no. Plural, 
nuls, nulles, none.* 



* Nul is used also as a qualificative adjective in the sense of null, void ; 
e. g., tous les decrets de Vusurpateur sont nuls, all decrees given by the 



66 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

Pas un, pas une (requires the negation before the verb), no one, not one. 

Plusieurs (plural, both genders), several, many (sonie). 

Quel, quelle, what. Plural, quels, quelles. 

Quelconque (both genders) whatever, any. Plural, quelconques. 

Quelque (both genders), some. Plural, quelques. 

Quel que, quelle que, whatever, whatsoever. Plural, quels que, quelles que. 

Quelque que (both genders), whatever, whatsoever. Plural, quelques que 
(quelque que, adverb, however, howsoever). 

Tel, telle, such. Plural, tels, telles. 

Tout, toute, every, any. Plural, tous, toutes, all : tout, everything ; tout r 
quite, however — adverb, but variable before adjectives (or participles) 
feminine commencing with a consonant or aspirated h. 

Some of these are, properly speaking, indefinite numerals ; 
but as it would answer no practical purpose to sever them from 
their companions, we have deemed it best to place them here 
in the general list of indefinite determinative adjectives. 

Observations. 

1. Aucun, nul, plusieurs, tel, are sometimes used also in a 
pronominal capacity (as indefinite pronouns) ; e. g., aucun n'a 
repondu, no one replied ; nul ne sait si bien ou le Soulier le blesse 
que celui qui le porte, nobody knows where the shoe pinches so 
well as he who wears it ; plusieurs sont d'avis que Vusurpateur 

finira sa carriere aux galeres, many are of opinion that the 
usurper will finish his career at the galleys ; je ne vis jamais 
rien de tel, I never saw anything like it. " 

2. Aucun and nul (and, as a matter of course, pas un) 
exclude all idea of plurality, and can accordingly be used only 
in the singular ; e.g., aucun chemin de fleurs ne conduit a la 
gloire, no flowery path leads to glory, none of the roads to glory 
are strewn with flowers ; nul plaisir n' eg ale celui que cause 
une bonne action qu'on a faite, no pleasure equals that caused 
by doing a good action. To say aucuns chemins, nuls plaisirs, 
would be a grammatical blunder. 

Remark. — Aucun and nul are used in the plural, however, before nouns 
plural; i. e., such as have no singular number, as annates; ancetres, 
ancestors ; funerailles, obsequies ; pleurs, tears ; and also before the plural 
of nouns which are used in the plural number in a different sense from 
that attached to them in the singular ; as, gages, wages, salary (singular, 
gage, token, pledge, pawn) ; froupes, troops, soldiers, men, forces (singular, 
troupe, a troop, band, company, gang, set, flock, herd, &c.) : aucunes troupes 
ne sont mieux disciplinees, no troops are better disciplined, there are not 
better disciplined troops in the world. 



usurper are null and void. The qualificative adjective nul stands invariably 
after the substantive, the determinative adjective nul always precedes the 



INDEFINITE DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVES. 67 

3. Aucun is used sometimes without the negation, in inter- 
rogative sentences, or in such as express doubt or exclusion; 
e. g., aucune femme fut-elle jamais aussi malheureuse ? was there 
ever so unfortunate a woman ? was there ever any woman so 
unfortunate ? 

4. Ohaque requires invariably a substantive after it. Do not 
say then, Us out regit, cinq cents louis chaque ; but say, cinq 
cents louis chacun* they have received five hundred louis each. 

5. Meme is used both as adjective and as adverb. 

a. Meme is an adjective — 

( a ) "When it precedes the substantive : c*est le meme auteur 
qui a ecrit Monte Christo, he is the same author that wrote 
Monte Christo ; ce sont encore les memes raisons, they are still 
the old reasons (the same reasons). 

( b ) When it stands after a pronoun or a single substantive ; 
e. g., les dieux ew#-memes devinrent jaloux des bergers, the gods 
themselves grew envious of the shepherds ; les sauvages memes 
sont moins cruels, the savages themselves are less cruel. 

b. Meme is an adverb — 

( a ) When it serves to qualify a verb ; e. g., les niagistrats 
doivent une eg ale justice a tout le monde, meme a leurs ennemis, 
magistrates (judges) owe an equal justice to every one, even to 
their enemies. 

( b ) When it is placed after two or several substantives ; e. g., 
les animaux, les jplantes meme, etaient au nombre des divinites 
egyptiennes, animals and even plants were among the gods of 
the Egyptians. 

Le meme, la meme, les memes, may be looked upon as a 
species of determinative pronoun: Vhomme que vous venez de 
quitter, est le meme qui m^a vole ma bourse Tiier, the man whom 
you have just left is the same who robbed me of my purse 
yesterday. 

5. a. Quelque (some) is a simple adjective, and takes the 
mark of the plural (quelques) ; e. g., quelques soldats Vont 
maltraite, some soldiers have ill-used him. 

b. Quelque, followed by a verb, is written in two separate 
words : quel (adjective) que (conjunction) ; in this condition it 
means whatever, and the adjective part of it (quel) agrees in 
gender and number with the subject of the verb, the con- 
junction que remaining, of course, unaltered ; e. g., quels 
que soient vos projets, whatever your projects may be ; quelles 
que soient les his, whatever the laws may be. 

* Chacun, chacune, each, everyone, indefinite pronoun. See that heading 
in the chapter on the Pronoun. 



68 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

c. Quelque (whatever, whatsoever) followed by a sub- 
stantive and the conjunction que, is an adjective, and agrees 
in number with the noun which it precedes ; e. g., princes, 
quelques raisons que vous one puissiez dire, princes, what 
reasons soever you may tell me (whatsoever reasons you may 
adduce). 

d. Quelque followed by an adjective, participle, or adverb, 
and the conjunction que, is an adverb, meaning however, how- 
soever, and remains accordingly unaltered ; e. g., quelque 
puissant que vous soyez, however so powerful you may be ; 
quelque estimes que nous soyons, however so esteemed we may 
be ; quelque adroitement qxi'ils s'y prennent, however so skilfully 
they may manage. 

Eemakk. — If a substantive follows after the adjective preceded by 
quelque, the latter is treated as an adjective, and agrees accordingly in 
number with that substantive ; e. g., mielques grands avantages que la 
nature vous ait donnes, whatsoever great advantages nature may have 
bestowed upon you. 

It will already have been remarked by the intelligent student, that 
quelque used in the sense of whatever, whatsoever, however, howsoever, 
demands invariably the subjunctive mode of the verb. 

6. Tout is used both as an adjective and as an adverb. 

a. The adjective tout signifies every, all, and agrees in gender 
and number with the substantive or pronoun which it qualifies : 
tout Jiomme, toute femme ; tous les hommes, toutes les femmes ; 
— nous avons tous une meme origine. 

In locutions like the following : sortir a tout moment, 
soriir a tous moments ; de tout cote, de tous cotes ; de toute 
sorte, de toutes sortes, the respective use of either the singular 
or plural depends upon whether the idea which it is intended 
to convey, is distributive or collective, — in other words, whether 
the adjective is intended to correspond to the English every or 
to all : if to the former the singular is used, if to the latter the 
plural; e.g., sortir a tout moment, to go out every instant; 
sortir a tous moments, to go out at all instants (at all times). 

b. The adverb tout signifies quite, and, followed by the con- 
junction que, also however (or rather though, as, put after the 
adjective or adverb). It is used in both acceptations, to qualify 
adjectives and adverbs ; e. g., Us etaient tout etourdis, they were 
quite astounded; ces demoiselles, tout aimables qu'elles sont* 
ne trouvent pas a se raarier, amiable as (though) these young 
ladies are, they cannot get married; tout elegamment qu'elle 

* Tout que is always followed by the indicative mode of the verb. 



INDEFINITE DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVES. 69 

est vetue, elle ne peut trouver personne qui V admire, elegantly 
as (though) she is dressed, she can find no one to admire her. 

Eemark. — Tout in its adverbial capacity is declined, however, like an 
adjective, if the adjective, or participle, following is bf the feminine gender, 
and commences with a consonant or aspirated h; e. g., elle est toute 
stupefaite j toute belle qyCelle est ; toutes Tidies qu'elles sont. 

c. Tout immediately followed by a substantive unaccompanied 
by any determinative, is used as adverb in the acceptation of 
quite, all; a preposition preceding the substantive makes no 
difference in this ; e. g., cette femme est tout yeux, this woman 
is all eyes ; cette maison est tout en Jlammes, this house is all 
in flames ; elle est tout en colere, she is quite in a passion 
(angrj) ; €n merinos tout laine, a merino all w r ool. In sentences 
of this kind, the substantive has the meaning and effect of an 
adjective, and it is as such that it is modified by tout; for 
instance, cette maison est tout en flammes, means simply, cette 
maison est tout enflammee. 

d. Tout followed immediately by the adjective autre, and a 
substantive, is either adjective or adverb. It is adjective and 
agrees with the substantive, if the sense permits the shifting of 
autre from before to after the noun ; e. g., donnez-moi toute 
autre occupation, give me any other occupation ; here we may 
say, donnez-moi tout occupation autre : the tout then is adjective, 
and agrees accordingly with the noun. The tout is adverb, if 
the sense does not permit this transposition of autre; e.g., 
donnez-moi une tout autre occupation, give me a quite different 
occupation. 

7. Quelconque is always placed after the noun, and is mostly 
accompanied by the negation : il n'y a demande quelconque de 
sa part a laquelleje ne sois pret a obtemperer, there is no request 
lie can possibly make that I am not willing to grant. Some- 
times quelconque is used in conjunction with aucun : il ne veut 
se soumettre a aucune autorite quelconque, he will submit to no 
authority whatsoever. Quelconque is also occasionally used in 
affirmative sentences ; faites-le d'une maniere quelconque, mats 

faites-le, do it any way you like, but do it; deux points quel- 
conques etant donnes, any two points being given. 

8. "With regard to the repetition or non-repetition of the 
indefinite determinative adjectives, the rules are the same as 
those laid down for the repetition of the article (see p. 28). 



70 



A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 






CHAPTEE III. 



THE NUMERALS. 

The numerals are divided into cardinal numbers and ordinal 
numbers. 



I. Cardinal Numoers. 



1. un, une. 

2. deux. 

3. trois. 

4. quatre. 

5. cinq. 

6. six. 

7. sept. 

8. huit. 

9. neuf. 

10. dix. 

11. onze. 

12. douze. 

13. treize. 

14. quatorze. 

15. quinze. 

16. seize. 

17. dix-sept. 

18. dix-huit. 

19. dix-neuf. 

20. wn^. 

21. w'wptf e£ ww. 

22. vingt-deux. 

23. vingt-trois. 

24. vingtquatre. 

25. vingt-cinq. 

26. vingt-six. 

27. vingt-sept. 

28. vingt-huit. 

29. vingt-neuf. 

30. trente. 

31. Jmite e£ m. 

32. trente-deux, &c. 

40. quarante. 

41. quarante et mi. 



42. quarante-deux, &c. 

50. cinquante. 

51. cinquante et un. 

52. cinquante-deux, <Jbc. 

60. soixante.' 

61. soixante et un. 

62. soixante-deux, <kc. 

70. soixante-dix (septante)* 

71. soixante-onze (septante et un). 

72. soixante-douze (septante-deux). 

73. soixante-treize (septante-trois). 

74. soixante-quatorze (septante- 

quatre). 

75. soixante-quinze (septante-cinq). 

76. soixante-seize (septante-six). 

77. soixante-dix-sept (septante-sept). 

78. soixante-dix-huit (septante-huit). 

79. soixante-dix-neuf(septante-neuf). 

80. quatre-vingts (octante). 

81. quatre-vingt-un (octante et un). 

82. quatre-vingt-deux, &c. (octante- 

deux, &c). 

90. quatre-vingt-dix (nonante). 

91. quatre-vingt-onze (nonante et un). 

92. quatre-vingt-douze, &c. (nonante- 

deux, &c). 

100. ce^. 

101. cent-un. 

102. cent-deux, &c. 

2 0, 3 0, &c. c?ew# cewfc, tfrois ce^s, <fec 
1000. miZZe. 
1100. owse cewfe. 

1200. cfowize cmte (mi We ce%£ and miZZe 
c£ez&£ cewte are rarely used). 



* The form in parenthesis is not generally used, though it would cer- 
tainly appear the more simple and correct of the two. 



CARDINAL NUMBERS. 



71 



1300. mille trois cents, or treize cents. 
1400. mille quatre cents, or quatorze 

cents. 
1500. mille cinque cents, or quinze cents. 
1600. mille six cents, or seize cents. 
1700. mille sept cents, or dix-sept cents. 
1800. mille huit cents, or dix-huit 

cents. 



1900. mille neuf cents, or dix-neuf 

cents. 
2000, 3000, &c. deux mille, trois 

mille, &c. 
1 , 0, 0. mille f oh mille, un million. 
1,000,000,000. mille fois un million, 

un milliard. 
Un billion,* un trillion, &c. 



Observations. 

1. Un serves for the masculine, une for the feminine ; all 
other cardinal numbers are of both genders. Preceded by the 
article, un is used (in connection with autre) in the capacity of 
a pronoun; and, in that capacity, it even forms the plural 
number les uns (see Chapter on the Pronoun). 

2. Vingt and cent are the only cardinal numbers susceptible 
of receiving the mark of the plural,t and even these only when 
they happen to be multiplied by another number, as in quatre- 
vingts, eighty (four times twenty) ; deux cents, trois cents, &c, 
two hundred, three hundred, &c. (ttvice hundred, three times 
hundred) ; and even then they reject the mark of the plural 
when they are followed by another number ; e. g., quatre-Ymgt- 
cinq soldats ; cinq cent trente ecus. 

Remark. — Vingt and cent used in lieu of the ordinals vingtieme, centieme 
remain always invariable : chapitre quatre-vingt (for chapitre quatre-vingtieme), 
chapter the eightieth; page deux cent (for page deux centieme), page two 
hundred (page the two hundredth) ; en Van sept cent quatre vingt (for en 
Van sept cent quatre-vingtieme), in the year seven hundred and eighty J 
(in the seven hundred and eightieth year) ; en huit cent (for en Van huit 
centieme), in the year eight hundred (in the eight hundredth year). 

3. In the computation of dates, mil is substituted for mille : 
en Van mil sept cent soixante-trois. Some writers restrict the 
substitution of mil for mille to the dates of the Christian era, 
and write, for instance, Van du monde deux mille cinq cent. 

Remark. — Mille used in the sense of mile, is a common noun, and 
takes accordingly the mark of the plural : cinq milles d'Angleterre font 
a-'peu-pres deux lieues de France. 



* The term billion is used by most people in France as synonymous and 
of the same value with milliard. The student will do well to bear this in 
mind. 

+ Even when used in a substantive capacity, the cardinal numbers 
remain invariable ; e. g., void Melitus, le chef des Onze, behold Melitus (here 
is, this is, Melitus), the chief of the Eleven. 

X We may here incidentally remark, that the French never express the 
and used in English to join two numbers together, nor the on put before 
days and dates. 



72 A GRAMMAR OP THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

4. If a cardinal number is followed by a participle past, the 
preposition de is inserted between : nous avons eu cinq cents de 
tues, et neuf cents de blesses, we had five hundred killed and 
nine hundred wounded* 

II. Ordinal Numbers. 

These are formed from the cardinal numbers by adding to 
the latter the termination ieme : troisieme, the third ; cinquieme, 
the fifth ; trente-et-unieme (or also trente-unieme), the thirty- 
first ; cinquante- deuxieme, the fifty-second. If the cardinal 
number to which the termination ieme is to be affixed ends in 
e mute, that vowel is thrown out : quatrieme (from quatre), the 
fourth; cinquantieme (from cinquante), the fiftieth. In neuf, 
nine, the f is changed to v : neuvieme, the ninth. Instead of 
unieme (which is only used in the compound numbers, vingt-et- 
unieme, trente-et-unieme, vingt-unieme, trente-unieme), we say 
premier (feminine, premiere), the first; for second, we say both 
deuxieme and second^ (feminine, seconde) ; the latter is not used 
in compound ordinal numbers, we do not say vingt-second, but 
mngt- deuxieme. With the exception of premier and second, 
the ordinal numbers are of both genders. 

Observations. 

1. Dates are expressed in French by means of the cardinal 
numbers, instead of the ordinal, — the first, le premier, forms 
the single exception from this rule ; e. g., le quatre Mars, or de 
Mars, the fourth March (the fourth of March, March the 
fourth) ; le vingt-deux Septembre, or de Septembre, the twenty- 
second September (the twenty-second of September, September 

* After a numeral adjective or a collective, the preposition de may be 
inserted before the modification which follows : il y eut deux mille soldats 
de tues ; il y eut un petit nombre de prisonniers de massacres. But we 
may say with equal correctness, deux mille soldats tues, un petit nombre de 
prisonniers massacres. However, if the pronoun en replaces the substantive 
modified, de must be inserted before the participle or adjective, or another 
turn must be given to the sentence : sur dix enfants il y en a cinq de legers, 
or qui sont legers. 

f Second implies a notion of order, deuxieme a notion of series ; thus we 
would say, for instance, le second tome, the second volume, no matter 
whether the work spoken of may happen to have two volumes or more, 
since the idea of order is independent of that of number. But when 
speaking of a work of two volumes only, we could not correctly say,^ le 
deuxieme tome, because two do not form a series, and a deuxieme necessarily 
presupposes the existence of a troisieme. 



COLLECTIVE NUMERAL SUBSTANTIVES. 73 

the twenty-second) ; le premier Mai, or de Mai, the first of 
May, May the first. We have here incidentally to remark, 
that in expressing dates in French, the number and the article 
always precede the name of the month. 

Remark. — The article le, la, retains the vowel before onze, onzieme; and 
du, au, de la, a la, are accordingly used before those two numerals 
instead of de V and a V; the s of les, des, is not drawn over to the 
initial o, nor is the x of aux : le onze Septembre ; le onzieme Steele ; histoire 
du onzieme siecle ; parlez au chef des Onze (pronounced, day ong'z) ; sur les 
onze heures. Sur les nne lieurc is also pronounced without drawing over 
the s of les to the initial u. 

2. With the exception of premier and second, the cardinal 
numbers (without the article), are used instead of the ordinals, 
to mark the order of succession in a line of sovereigns of the 
same name : Louis Seize, Louis the Sixteenth ; George Trois, 
George the Third ; Charles Douze, Charles the Twelfth ; Henri 
Quatre, Henry the Fourth, &c. ; but Francois Premier, Francis 
the First ; Ferdinand Second, Ferdinand the Second. Quint is 
used (instead of cinq) only in the case of the emperor Charles 
the Fifth, and of Pope Sixtus the Fifth : Charles .Quint, Sixte 
Quint ; but Louis Cinq, Louis the Fifth ; Charles Cinq, Charles 
the Fifth (of France). 

3. With the substantives volume, tome, section, paragraphe, 
chapitre, page (in references or quotations), the use of the 
cardinal numbers (with the exception of un), or of the ordinal 
numbers is optional, if the numeral adjective is placed after the 
noun : tome trois or troisieme, chapitre six or sixieme, page deux 
cent , or deux centihne, &c. But the ordinals must be used if the 
numeral adjective precedes the noun : le cinquieme chapitre, &c. 

Besides the cardinal and ordinal numbers, the French 
language has, of course, like the English, several other terms 
of number. We will here briefly glance at the most important 
of them. 

a. Collective Numeral Substantives. 

2. line couple, une paire, a brace, a pair, a couple. 

3. un trio, a trio, a leash. 

4. deux couples, two couples. 

6. une demi-douzaine, half a dozen, a half-dozen. 

7. une semaine, a week. 

8. une huitaine, a period of eight days. 

9. une neuvaine, nine days of prayer. 
10. une dixaine, half a score, a half-score. 
12. une douzaine, a dozen. 

15. une quinzaine, a fortnight, also a number of fifteen. 
20. une vingtaine, a score. 

£ 



74 A GEAMMAK OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

24. deux douzaines, a thrave. 
30. une trentaine, a score and a half. 
40. une quarantaine, two score. 
50. une cinquantaine, two score and a half. 
60. une soixantaine, three score. 
100. une centaine, a hundred, one hundred (un quintal is used 

only in the sense of a cwt., a hundredweight). 
144. une grosse, a gross. 
200. deux centaines, two hundred. 
1000. un millier, a thousand, one thousand, one thousand weight. 
2000. deux milliers, two thousand. 
10,000. une myriade, a myriad, one myriad. 
1,000,000. un million, a million, one million. 

b. Partitive or Fractional Numbers. 

1. V unite, unit, whole. 

J. une moitie, a moiety, a half. 

£. un tiers, a third, a tierce. 

£. un quart, a quarter, a fourth. 

%. un cinquieme, a fifth. 

■J. ww sixieme, a sixth. 

And so on, prefixing simply un to the ordinal numbers. 
Besides the usual terms of dixieme and centieme, the words 
decime and centime are also used respectively for a tenth, and 
a hundredth, more particularly in the nomenclature of the 
monetary system of France. 

c. Iterative Numbers {Adverbs). 

These are formed by adding to the cardinal numbers, and 
also to some of the indefinite determinative adjectives, or, more 
correctly speaking, indefinite numerals, the word fois, time : 
unefois, once ; deux fois, twice ; trois fois, three times ; quatre 
fois, four times ; dix fois, ten times ; cent fois, a hundred times ; 
quelquefois, sometimes ; chaque fois, every time, always ; mainte 
fois, many a time, &c. 

d. Multiplicative Numbers (both Adjectives and Substantives). 

Simple, single, simple (le simple) ; double, double, two-fold (le 
double) ; triple, treble, triple, three-fold (le triple) ; quadruple, 
quadruple, four-fold (le quadruple), &c. 

e. Ordinal Adverbs. 

These are formed by adding to the ordinal numbers (to the 
feminine of the first two) the termination ment : premier ement, 
firstly, first; secondement, secondly; troisiemement, thirdly, &c 



IIIB PRONOUN. 



75 



CHAPTEE IV. 

« 

THE PRONOUN'. 



"W r E divide the French pronouns into four classes, viz. : — 



1. Personal Pronouns. 

2. Demonstrative Pronouns. 

3. Possessive Pronouns. 

4. Relative Pronouns. 



Sect. I. Personal Pronouns. 

The personal pronouns are subdivided into two classes ; viz., 
definite personal pronouns, and indefinite personal pronouns of 
the third person. 

A. Definite Personal Pronouns. 

Preliminary Remark. — Some of the definite personal pronouns (in the 
capacity of either subject, or direct complement, or indirect complement 
without preposition) precede the verb (except in some rare cases which will 
be found below), others take their position after the verb, or stand alone, 
embodying in themselves (by ellipsis) the several constituent parts of a 
proposition or sentence : qui m'appelle ? Moi — who calls me ? I (je vous 
appelle, I call you) ; il est plus grand que toi, he is taller than thou (than 
thou art, &c). To facilitate the study and comprehension of this section, 
we will here call the former class of definite personal pronouns conjunctive, 
the latter, absolute. 

TIEST PEESON, EOE THE TWO GE2TDEBS. 
Singular. 

CONJUNCTIVE. 



Subject 

Indirect Regimen, or \ 
Indirect Complement J 
Direct Complement, or 1 
Direct Regimen J 



Subject 

Indirect Regimen, or "I 
Indirect Complement J 
Direct Regimen, or \ 
Direct Complement J 



fa I 

me, to me, me 

me, me 

Plural, 
nous, we 
nous, to us, us 

nous, us 



ABSOLUTE. 

moi, I (me). 
de moi, of me." 
a moi, to me. 

moi, me. 



nous, we. 

de nous, of us. 

a nous, to us. 



nous, us. 



E 2 



76 



A GEAMMAE OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



SECOND PEESON, FOE THE TWO GENDEES. 

Singular. 

CONJUNCTIVE. ABSOLUTE. 

Subject tu, thou toi, thou. 

Indirect Regimen, or 1 . , ,, , , de toi, of thee. 

Indirect Complement J te > t0 tnee > tnee a toi, to thee. 

Direct Complement te, thee toi, thee. 



Plural, 
vous, you 



Subject 

Indirect Reqimen, or 1 I 

Indirect Complement J ™^ to you, you 

Direct Complement vous, you 



vous, you. 
de vous, of you. 
» wits, to you. 
vous, you. 



THIED PEESON, MASCULINE. 



Singular. 



CONJUNCTIVE. 



Subject 

Indirect Regimen, or "I 
Indirect Complement J 
Direct Complement 



Subject 



it, he 

en, of him 

lui (or ?/*), to him, him 

le, him 

Plural, 

Us, they 



Indirect Regimen, or "| ew, of them 

Indirect Complement J Zewr (or 2/*) to them, them a eux, to them. 



ABSOLUTE. 

lui, he. 

de lui, of him. 
& Zm, to him. 
lui, him. 



6M#, they. 

6] eux, of them. 



Direct Complement les, them 



eux, them. 



THIED PEESON, FEMININE. 

Singular, 



CONJUNCTIVE. 

Subject elle, she 

Indirect Regimen, or "I cm, of her 

Indirect Complement J Zwi (or 2/*) to her. her 
Direct Complement la, her 

PZwraZ. 

eZZes, they 

en, of them 

Zewr (or y*), to them 

Zes, them 



Subject 

Indirect Regimen, or 
Indirect Complement 
Direct Complement 



} 



ABSOLUTE. 

cZZe, she. 
cZ'eZZe, of her. 
a elle, to her. 
elle, her. 



elles, they. 
d elles, of them. 
a elles, to them. 
elles, them. 



* "With reference to persons, y is hardly ever used for the absolute forms 
a lui, a eux, a elle, a elles, except in connexion with verbs that are used of 
both persons and things, as se fier, dicouvrir, &c. 



REMARKS ON THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 77 

REELEXIYE PRONOUN EOR THE THIRD PERSON, EOR BOTH 
NUMBERS AND BOTH GENDERS. 

CONJUNCTIVE. ABSOLUTE. 

se, himself, herself, itself, themselves, soi, himself, &c. 

and also to or for himself, &c. de soi, of himself, &c. 

a soi, to himself, &c. 

It need hardly be observed here that the English it is 
rendered into French by il or elle, according to the gender of 
the noun represented. 

The pronouns le, la, les, cannot possibly be confounded with 
the article, since the latter is invariably followed by a noun, 
whereas the pronouns are always joined to a verb. 

'Remarks on the Personal Pronouns. 

I. As has already been mentioned, the conjunctive form of 
the personal pronouns precedes the verb. 

Exceptions. 

1. The personal pronoun conjunctive, used in the capacity 
of subject of the sentence, is placed after the verb in the simple, 
and between the auxiliary and the participle past in the com- 
pound, tenses, a. In interrogative sentences : oil suis-je ? 
where am I ? Qu'avez-yousfait ? what have you done ? h. In 
certain exclamatory sentences : .est-eYLe belle ! how beautiful 
she is ! (isn't she beautiful ?) c. When the verb stands in the 
subjunctive mode, without any conjunction being expressed. 
puisse-je le voir ! would I could see him ! (oh, that I might see 
him !) d. In narration, when reporting the words of some one : 
non, mon ami, lui repondis-je, il vCa pas perdu autant que vous ; 
soyez tranquille, disait-il, je men charge, e. When the verb is 

. preceded by aussi, on that account ; peut-etre, may be, per- 
chance ; encore, and yet, besides ; toujours, still ; en vain, in 
vain ; du moins, au moins, at least ; the place to be assigned 
to the pronoun is optional, and we may say with equal cor- 
rectness, aussi est-S\. votre ami, and aussi il est voire ami. 
However, the former way imparts greater force and elegance 
to the expression. 

2. a. A personal pronoun conjunctive, forming the comple- 
ment of an infinitive under the dependence of another verb, 
may be placed either before the governing verb, or before the 
infinitive ; and we may say with equal correctness, je viens vous 



78 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

cJiercJier, and je vous viens chercher. b. In affirmative hnpera- 
tive sentences, the personal prononn is put after the verb, moi 
and toi being moreover substituted for me and te : ouvrez-moi 
la porte, open the door to me ; embrassez-moi, ma fille, embrace 
me, my daughter ; pends-toi si tu veux, mais Jaisse-moi tran- 
quille, hang yourself if you like (literally, hang thyself if thou 
likest), but leave me in peace. But if the imperative is accom- 
panied by a negation, the general rule holds good: ne me 
trompez pas, do not deceive me. The pronouns me and te are 
used also when intervening betwixt an infinitive and the im- 
perative of a neuter verb : venez me voir, va tefaire raser. 

Remark 1. — If there happen to be two imperatives joined by the con- 
junction et, and, or ou, or, the pronoun complement of the second 
imperative may precede the verb : polissez-\e sans cesse, et le repolissez, 
polish and re-polish it incessantly ; laissez-moi cette chaine, ou m' arrachez 
lejour, leave me this chain, or take my life. 

Remark 2. — Of two pronouns accompanying a verb in the imperative, 
the one in the capacity of direct, the other in that of indirect complement, 
the former is put first : pretez-le-moi, lend it me ; cedez-le-lui, cede it to 
him, give it up to him. 

Exception. — When one of the pronouns, moi, toi, le, la, forms the direct 
complement of an imperative, being accompanied at the same time by the 
indirect complement, y, the latter takes precedence: envoy ez-j -moi ; 'pro- 
menes-j-toi, menez-j-le. It is, however, preferable in such cases to give a 
different turn to the sentence, and to say, for instance, envoyez-moi la; 
promene-toi dans ce lieu, &c. 

II. "When several personal pronouns conjunctive accompany 
a verb in the capacity of complements, they are respectively 
placed after one another in accordance with the following order 
of succession : me, te, se, nous, vous, le, la, les, lui, leur, y, en* 

This rule must be taken in conjunction with the one given in the 
paragraph immediately preceding (I. 2. b. Remark 2), by which it is some- 
what modified. 

III. A personal pronoun employed as the subject of several 
sentences, must be repeated before each verb, if the several 
sentences are connected by any other conjunction than et, and ; 
ou, or ; ni, nor ; mais, but : nous detestons les meehants, parceque 
nous les craignons, we hate (detest) the wicked, because we 
fear them ; elle est encore belle, qruoiqueile ne soit plus de la 
premiere jeunesse, she is still handsome, although she is no 
longer in her prime. With regard to the pronouns of the fir.st 
and second person, they ought to be repeated also if the verbs 
are in different tenses : je dis, et je dirai toujours, I say and (I) 
shall always say; or when passing from an affirmation to a 
negation, or vice versa : vous voulez, et vous ne voulez pas, you 
will, and you will not. In all other cases, the ear, a correct 



REMARKS ON THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 79 

taste, and the demands of perspicuity, are left to decide on the 
propriety of repeating the pronoun subject or not. Personal 
pronouns employed as complements, must be repeated before 
each verb in a simple tense ; before verbs in a compound tense, 
the repetition is optional, unless the pronouns happen to form 
complements of different nature, when the pronoun must 
always be repeated : il nous a recompenses, et nous a adresse 
des eloges, — the nous in the first sentence here is complement 
direct, the nous in the second complement indirect. 

IV. The pronoun nous, we, when used in lieu oije, I, requires 
all its correspondents in the singular (with the exception of 
the verb, of course) : nous ne nous sommes pas cru oblige de lui 
repondre, we (in lieu of I — the editorial we, for instance) have 
not deemed ourself (felt) called upon to reply to him. 

Y. The pronoun le, which makes la in the feminine, and les 
in the plural for both genders, may represent a substantive or 
an adjective. "When it represents the former, or an adjective 
used in a substantive capacity, it agrees in gender and number 
with that substantive, or adjective used substantively : — 



Etes vous Madame Roland ? 
Are you Mrs. Roland ] 


Je la suis. 
I am. 


Etes vous sa mere ? 

Are you his (or her) mother ] 


Je la suis. 
I am. 


Etes vous lesfils de la maison? 
Are you the sons of the house ? 


Nous les sommes. 
We are. 


Etes vous les malades ? 
Are you the patients ? 


Nous les sommes. 
We are. 


Et y es vous la mariee t 
Are you the bride ] 


Je ne la suis pas. 
I am not. 



Eut when it represents an adjective, or a substantive used 
adjecfcively, le is used without reference to the gender or 
number of the adjective in question : — 

Madame, etes vous malade ? Je le suis. 

Are you ill, Madam ? I am. 

Etes vous cuisiniere ? Je le suis. 

Are you a cook ? I am. 

Vos amis, sont-ils maries ? lis ne le sont pas. 

Are your friends married ? They are not. 

Messieurs Gladstone et Herbert sont-ils ministres ? Us le sont. 

Are Messrs. Gladstone and Herbert ministers ] They are. 

The intelligent student will already have perceived that the 
pronoun le agrees in gender and number with the noun-sub- 



80 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

stantive or adjective, in all cases where they are preceded by 
the article, or a determinative adjective. 

The pronoun le, placed under the dependence of a transitive 
or intransitive verb, or of etre, had always better be expressed : 
il ri est pas aussi riche que je le croyais ; elle est plus sotie quelle 
ne le par ait ; Us sont moins riche quails ne Yetaient. 

VI. The pronoun leur, and the pronouns lui, eux, elle, elles, 
when employed as indirect complements, can be applied, 
correctly to persons only, and to personified things : in all 
other cases, the pronouns y and en must be respectively 
substituted for them. Thus, you must not say, for instance, 
la piece que nous avons vu jouer avant-hier soir, m'a inter esse si 
vivement que je rfaifait depuis que songer a elle, the piece which 
we saw played the day before yesterday, has interested me so 
much that I have thought of nothing else since ; ce chien est 
mechant, ne lui touchez pas, that dog is vicious, do not touch 
him (do not go near him) ; ces bdtiments rfetant pas assez 
grands, je leur ferai ajouter une aile, these buildings not being 
spacious enough, I shall have another wing added (to them) ; 

je viendrai vous rejoindre a la porte de cette maison, ainsi ne 
vous eloignez pas trop d'elle, I shall rejoin you at the door of 
this house, therefore do not stray too far from it; but say, 
qu'y songer, n'y touchez pas, fy ferai ajouter, ne vous en eloignez 
pas trop. 

VII. The pronoun en is rarely used for persons, except in 
answer to a question, and to avoid the repetition of de lui, 
d'elle, &c. : avez vous peur de lui? oui, j'en ai peur, are you 
afraid of frim ? yes, I am. It must never be used in a dependent 
sentence for the subject of the principal sentence ; hence you 
must not say, il craint qu'on ne s'en plaigne, but qu'on ne se 
plaigne de lui, he fears that complaints may be made about him. 
For things en is used most extensively. It would lead us too far 
to enumerate and explain the various ways in which the 
pronoun en may be rendered in English ; a brief allusion to its 
principal meanings must suffice here. It stands for of him, of 
her, of it, of them ; from him, &c, with him, &c, about him, &c. ; 
and accordingly also for the adverbial forms, thereof, thereby, 
therewith. The French language makes use also of the 
pronoun en in some cases, where that pronoun is not expressed 
in English by any equivalent or representative ; for instance, 
when objects are compared with reference to their number: 
mon frere a quatre volumes de cet ouvrage, f en ai deux, my 
brother has four volumes of this work, I have two (scil. of 
them) : so also in sentences like the following : si vous riavez 



REMARKS ON THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 81 

pas de chapeau,je voas enpreterai un, if you have no hat, I will 
lend you one (scil. of them, of hats) ; avez vouz recu un paquet 
hier ? Old, fen ai recu un, have you received a parcel yesterday? 
Yes, I have. Sometimes en is rendered in English by some, 
any, none (with the negation) : avez-vous encore de V argent? 
je crois qiCil m'en reste encore, have you still money left ? I 
believe I have still some left ; a propos de livres, demandez a 
voire fr ere s'il en a encore des miens, talking of books, pray ask 
your brother whether he has still any of mine ; donnez-moi des 
prunes. II ne m'en reste plus (je n'en ai plus), give me some 
prunes. I have got none left (I have not got any left). Some- 
times en refers to a whole sentence : je lui en parlerai, s'il en 
est temps encore, I will talk to him about it, if it is still time 
(scil. to talk about it). 

VIII. The pronoun y, as already mentioned, is used for 
persons only in a few exceptional cases. For things it is used 
most extensively. It must not be confounded with the adverb 
y, there, thither, which it might be the more readily as the latter 
takes its place equally before the verb : fj vols, I am going there 
(thither) ; je m'y plais, I find myself comfortable there ; how- 
ever, even as adverb, it has a pronominal character, referring 
always to some place antecedently named or understood. The 
pronoun y has the meaning of a lui, a elle, a cela, and is to be 
constructed in English by of it, on it, to it, in it, at it, about 
it, &c, according to the construction of the corresponding 
English verbs. The French locution il y a corresponds to the 
English there is, there are. Sometimes y refers, like en, to a 
whole sentence : on a fait tout pour vaincre sa resistance, mais 
on n y j est pas parvenu, everything has been done to overcome 
his opposition, but without success (but one has not [arrived 
at it] succeeded in it — scil. in overcoming his opposition). 
Y must always refer to some antecedent ; hence, expressions 
such as ayant les yeux fermes je ri*y vols goutte, when my eyes 
are shut I see nothing ; on dirait que vous nj voyez clair, one 
would say you do not see clear ; and others of a similar kind, 
are faulty, the y being here absolutely superfluous. 

IX. The absolute forms of the personal pronouns are used, 
as already stated, when the pronoun embodies in itself alone the 
several constituent parts of a sentence, as in elliptical phrases ; 
for instance, in answer to a question : quifrappe ? 3foi (or c'est 
moi) — who knocks ? I (pie is here commonly substituted in 
English also) ; or after que, than, as, and comme, as, like: vous en 
etes mieux informe que lui, you have more accurate information 
on the subject than he (scil. has) ; il ne merite pas Vamitie' aVun 

e3 



82 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

homme comme toi (tel que toi), he does not deserve the friendship 
of a man like thee (of a man such as thou art). The absolute 
forms are used also : 1. When the pronoun is governed by a 
preposition : will you go to Italy with me ? Voulez-vous atler 
en Italie avec moi? 2. When two pronouns, or a pronoun 
and a noun, are connected by et, and; ou, or; ni — ni, neither, nor, 
in which case politeness requires also to place the first person 
last : je vous punirai, toi et ton frere, I shall punish you, thee 
and thy brother; ni lui ni moi lui avons donne de V argent, 
neither he nor I have given him money ; eux ou lui nCont vole 
ma bourse, they or he have robbed me of my purse ; vous et 
moi nous avons fait cela, you and I did it ; toi et lui vous etes 
Jieureux, thou and he are happy. 3. Before a relative pronoun 
or an infinitive : toi qui sais tout, thou who knowest every- 
thing ; moi, trahir le meilleur de mes amis ! me, betray my best 
friend ! 4. When the pronoun is opposed antithetically to 
another pronoun, or to a noun : vous me demandez toujours de 
V argent, lui m'en donne, you always ash me for money, he gives 
me money. 5. When the pronoun is separated from its verb 
by any explanatory incidental notion : lui, en homme d'honneur, 
se ehargea d'acquitter les dettes de son per e, he, like an honorable 
man, undertook to pay the debts of his father. 6. When the 
pronoun is used by way of emphasis to give greater force to a 
preceding statement or remark : oui, il Va tuee, elle, sa propre 
mere, yes, he has killed her, her, his own mother. 7. When 
seul, alone, or meme, self, is added to the pronoun : Y&o\-meme, 
lui-seul, eux-memes, &c. 

X. The pronoun soi is always of the singular number, and 
applies both to things and persons ; to the latter, however, only 
with one of the indefinite pronouns (either expressed or under- 
stood), or an infinitive for the subject of the sentence : on doit 
rarement parler de soi, one should seldom speak of one's-self; 
chacun pense a soi, every one thinks of himself; il est essentiel 
de prendre garde a soi (qu' on prenne garde a soi), it is necessary 
that one should take care of one's-self; ne vivre que pour soi, 
c'est etre deja mort, to live for one's-self alone is being already 
dead; en cher chant a tromper les autres, c'est sou/cent soi (or 
soi-meme) qu^on trompe, in attempting to deceive others we 
frequently deceive ourselves. 

Remark. — Soi is sometimes used also in reference to persons, to avoid 
ambiguity : en remplissant les volontes de son pere, ce jeune homme travaille 
pour soi, in fulfilling the wishes of his father, this young man is labouring 
(working) for himself (acting for his own interest) ; pour lui would be ambi- 
guous here, and would of the two refer rather to the father than the son. 

With pronominal verbs lui-mSme refers to the complement, soi-meme to 



INDEFINITE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 83 

the subject : le capitaine sest sauve lui-meme, the captain has saved himself, 
ie., his own person ; le capitaine s'est sauve soi-meme, the captain has saved 
himself, i.e., by himself, without the aid of others. 

B. Indefinite Personal Pronouns oftlie Third Person. 

Autrui, other people, others. 

Chacun — chacune, e very-one, each. 

On (Von), one, people, they, we, somebody. 

Personne, nobody, no one, none. 

Quelqu'un — quelquune, one, some one. Plural, quelques-uns — quelques-unes. 

Quiconque, whoever, whosoever. 

Men, nothing. 

Pun Vautre — Vune Vautre, one another, each other. Plural, les uns les 

autres — les unes les autres. 
Pun et Vautre — Vune et Vautre, both. Plural, les uns et les autres — les unes et 

les autres. 

That the indefinite determinative adjectives tel, nul, aucun, 
plusieurs, tout (in the sense of everything, all), are nsed some- 
times also in the capacity of indefinite pronouns, has been 
mentioned already in Chapter II. B. 

Observations. 

I. Autrui applies to persons only, and has no plural. It can 
never form the subject of a sentence, and is mostly preceded 
by a preposition ; it occurs sometimes, however, also as direct 
complement : sans dessein de tromper autrui, without intention 
to deceive others. 

II. Chacun, preceded by a noun or pronoun in the plural, 
requires son, sa, ses, when it stands after the direct complement, 
or when the verb has no direct complement : Us ont apporte 
leurs offrandes, chacun selon ses moyens, they have brought their 
offerings, each according to his means ; Us ont opine, chacun a 
son tour, they have given their opinion, each in his turn. It 
requires leur, leurs, when preceding the direct complement : Us 
ont apporte, chacun, leurs offrandes ; Us ont donne, chacun, leur 
avis, 

III. On, though essentially masculine and singular, assumes 
• the feminine gender when it refers distinctly to a female — and 

the plural number, when the sense clearly indicates that the 
pronoun designates more than one person ; in such cases, the 
adjective and the participle relating to on, take the mark 
respectively of the feminine, or plural : quand on est belle, 
jeune et riche, on trouve facilement a se marier, a handsome 
young girl with a fortune to boot will readily find a husband 
{literally, when one is handsome, young, and wealthy, one finds 
readily to get married) ; lorsqu'on s'aime tendrement, on n'est 



84 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

pas Jieureux quand on est separes, people who love each other 
dearly do not feel happy when they are parted. 

The indefinite pronoun on is used very extensively in French, 
but more particularly for the purpose of avoiding the passive 
voice, which is had recourse to much less commonly in French 
than in English (except as regards verbs expressing love, hatred, 
esteem, contempt). 

JO on is substituted for on principally after et, si, ou (or), ou 
(where) ; and also, but much less generally, after que and qui, 
and after w r ords ending in e or i : et Ton dit, si Ton voit, ou 
Ton verra, ainsi Ton ne pourrait lui parler, je crois que Ton 
frappe ; but we say with equal correctness, ainsi on ne pourrait, 
&c, quon frappe. This substitution being resorted to simply 
for the sake of euphony, does not take place before words 
beginning with I, the dissonance produced by the clashing of 
two Vs affects the ear more disagreeably than the hiatus 
resulting from the meeting of a final with an initial vowel : et * 
on le dit. 

At the beginning of a sentence on is always preferable to Von. 

IV. The indefinite pronoun personne is always masculine 
and singular. It is usually employed in the acceptation of 
no one, nobody, in which case the verb is accompanied by the 
negation : nous n'avons vu personne, we saw no one ; personne 
n'est assez sot pour le croire, no one is stupid enough to believe 
it. Personne is used sometimes also elliptically, the same as 
nobody in English, in answer to a question : avez-vous vie entrer 
quelqu'un ici ? Personne (i. e.,je vJai vu entrer personne) ; have 
you seen anybody go in here ? Nobody. 

In affirmative interrogative sentences, and in those expressing 
doubt, and also where it occurs as the second member of com- 
parison, personne signifies anybody, anyone, and, of course, is 
. not accompanied by the negation : personne oserait-il Vaffirmer? 
would anybody dare to assert it ? je doute que personne en ait 
connaissance, I doubt whether anybody is cognisant of it ; il sait 
faire la cuisine mieux que personne, he is a greater adept in the 
art of cookery (he understands the art of cookery, he can 
cook better) than anyone. 

The substantive personne, a person, is of the feminine gender. 
It cannot well be confounded with the indefinite pronoun, as 
it is always accompanied by the article, or a determinative 
adjective. 

* The t being absolutely and invariably mute in the conjunction et, we 
may be permitted to look upon that letter as an equivalent simply of the 
acute accent, and to regard et in the light of e. 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 85 

V. Quelqu'un agrees in gender and number with the noun 
to which it refers. Taken absolutely, and in an indeterminate 
sense, it is masculine and singular : f attends quekju'un, I 
expect somebody. 

VI. Quiconque refers to persons only, and is always mascu- 
line and singular. 

VII. Bien is masculine and singular, and is generally used 
in the sense of nothing, in which case the verb is accompanied 
by the negation : vous u'avez rien a craindre, you have nothing 
to fear. Sometimes rien is used elliptically, the same as 
nothing in English, in answer to a question: que faites-vous la? 
rien (i. e.,je nefais rien) ; what are you doing there ? Nothing. 
It is used elliptically also in locutions like the following : rien 
de beau que le vrai (i. e., il n'y a rien de, &c), the true alone is 
truly beautiful. When employed without the negation, rien 
signifies anything : a-t-on jamais vu rien de semblable, has any- 
thing like this ever been seen before ? je doute que rien lui 
reussisse, I doubt whether he will succeed in anything, 

VIII. Of one another, to one another {of each other, to each 
other), are rendered respectively by Vun de V autre, Vun a 
V autre : lesfemmes aiment a medire les unes des autres,* women 
like to backbite (slander) each other (women dearly love a bit 
of scandal at each other's expense). 

Both is rendered also by tous les deux, or tous deux. Some 
grammarians draw a distinction between these two expressions, 
looking upon the former as synonymous with Vun et V autre ; 
upon the latter as synonymous with Vun avec V autre, ensemble, 
the one with the other, together. This distinction, however, 
appears a little over refined, and is totally disregarded even by 
some of the most correct writers. 

2. Demonstrative Pronouns. 

Ce, this, that, it ; ceci, this (this here), this thing ; cela, that (that there) 

that thing. 
Celui, celle, this. Plural, ceux, celles, these. 
Celui-ci, celle-ci, this (this here, this one here), the latter. Plural, ceux~ci, 

celles-ci, these (these here), the latter. 
Celui-la, celle-la, that (that there, that one there), the former. Plural, 

ceux-ld, celles-la, those (those there), the former. 



* Whenever there are more than two objects, the plural les uns les 
autres, les unes les autres, must be used (as above) ; mille soldats sexcitent 
les uns les autres au combat, a thousand soldiers excite each other to the 
combat. To use Vun V autre in the singular in such instances would be a 
grammatical blunder. 



86 A GRAMMAR OF THE TRENCH LANGUAGE. 

Observations. 

1. The demonstrative pronoun ce must not be confounded 
with the demonstrative adjective of the same name ; the latter 
is invariably followed by a substantive, the former is always 
joined to the verb etre, or followed by the pronouns que, qui, 
quoi, dont. 

Ce is used for il, Us, elle, elles, as subject of a sentence of 
which a noun substantive or a pronoun forms the attribute : ce 
furent* eux qui me dirent d'attendre, it was they who told me 
to wait ; bien loin d'etre des dieux, ce ne sont pas wienie des 
hommes, far from being gods, they are not even men. But 
where an adjective, or a substantive used adjectively, forms the 
attribute of the sentence, the personal pronoun must be used : 
avez-vous vu le cheval que je mens d'acheter ? — il est superbe, 
have you seen the horse which I have just purchased ? it is a 
superb animal. Ce may be used, however, even with an 
adjective, if relating, not to a particular noun or pronoun, but 
to a whole sentence : J est vrai, it is true ; & est juste, it is just, 
true, right ; c'est possible, it is possible (viz., that what has 
just been said, or reported, is true, &c). 

Ce is also much used in conjunction with etre to impart 
greater perspicuity, precision, and elegance to a sentence. 
Thus it is employed: — a. When the sentence begins with ce 
followed by a relative pronoun : ce qui importe a Vhomme, c'est 
de remplir ses devoirs, what (that what) concerns man (what 
concerns man most) is to fulfil his duties ; ce que je deteste le 
plus, o?est la niedisance, what I hate most is slander. 

Remarks. — 1. When in sentences of this kind the verb etre is followed 
by a substantive, the use of the ce is imperative if that substantive stands 
in the plural number : ce qu!on souffre avec le moins de patience, ce sont les 
injustices, what we endure least patiently is injustice ; but if the substan- 
tive is in the singular, the use of ce is optional : ce que je dis est, or c'est, 
la verite, what I say is the truth. 

2. When the verb ttre is followed by an adjective, the use of the ce is 
dispensed with : ce que vous me dites la est horrible. 

b. The attribute of a sentence with etre is often made to 
precede the verb by way of imparting greater emphasis to the 
idea expressed ; in such cases the use of ce before the verb is 
resorted to : le plus beau present qui ait ete fait aux hommes, 

* The verb etre, used in conjunction with ce, is put in the plural only 
when followed by a noun in the plural, or by a pronoun in the third person 
plural (as in the instance given above). In all other cases, and even 
though followed by nous or vous, or by several nouns substantive (in 
the singular number, of course), the verb is put invariably in the singular. 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 87 

apres la sagesse, c'est Tamitie, the fairest gift that has been 
bestowed on man, after wisdom, is friendship. Whether the 
part preceding the verb figures as attribute, may be readily- 
ascertained by changing the construction of the sentence, 
placing the part following the verb before, the part preceding 
the verb after it ; if the sentence will bear this construction, 
the part preceding the verb forms the attribute of the sentence. 
Thus, in the instance given above, we may say, Vamitie' est le 
plus beau present, &c. 

Kemarks. — 1. In cases where the attribute is of limited extent, consisting 
of a few words merely, the use of the ce is optional, and we may say, for 
instance, with equal correctness, le mobile de nos actions est, or c'est noire 
felicite, our happiness is the moving spring of our actions. 

2. Sometimes the verb etre preceded by ce is placed at the head of the 
sentence and followed by the attribute, the subject being enunciated last ; 
in sentences of the kind the subject generally takes que before it ; or if it 
happens to be an infinitive, que de : ce serait un coup de maitre que de 
s'emparer de sa personne, it would be a master-stroke to seize his person ; 
c'est un devoir que d'obliger ses amis, it is a duty to serve one's friends ; c'est 
une belle chose que la sincerite, it is a fine thing, sincerity (sincerity is a fine 
thing). Custom sanctions, however, the omission of the que in sentences of 
the kind. 

c. Ce is used before etre when that verb is preceded by two 
or several infinitives, and followed by a substantive : jouer aux 
cartes, medire de son prochain, faire de mediants couplets, c'est 
Vunique, ou, si vous aimez mieux, la triple occupation de sa vie, 
to play cards, slander his neighbour, and make bad verses, 
(such) is the only, or, if you like it better, the triple occupation 
of his life. If there is only one infinitive preceding the verb, 
the use of the ce is optional, and we may with equal correctness 
say, for instance, etre Jionnete homme etait, or c' etait, son unique 
ambition, his only ambition was to be an honest man. The use 
of ce before etre is imperative when that verb is both preceded 
and followed by an infinitive : vegeter c'est mourir, to vegetate 
is to die ; voyager d pied, c'est voyager comme Thales, JPlaton et 
Pythagore, to travel on foot, is to travel like Thales, Plato and 
Pythagoras ; unless the proposition should happen to be nega- 
tive : vegeter n' est pas vivre, to vegetate is not to live. 

II. Celui, ceux, celle, celles, express a general idea, which 
requires to be more accurately denned, either by means of an 
indirect complement : sa conduite dans cette affaire etait celle 
d'un honnete homme, his conduct in this business (matter, 
affair) was that of an honest man ; or by a relative pronoun 
placed immediately after : ceux qui font des heureux sont les 
vrais conquerants, those who make people happy are the true 
conquerors. 



88 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

Remark. — Celui is sometimes omitted before the relative pronoun, in 
the same way as the personal pronoun of the third person is sometimes in 
English (" who steals my purse, steals trash," &c), to give greater concise- 
ness, force, and elegance to the expression : qui £ excuse s" accuse (for celui 
qui, &c), in cases of this kind the qui may be immediately preceded by a 
preposition governing the omitted antecedent of the relative : tout merit a 
temps a qui salt attendre (for a celui qui, &c). 

III. Celui-ci (celle-ci — plural, ceux-ci, celles-ci), celui-la (celle- 
la — plural, ceux-la, celles-la), correspond to the English this, 
that, this one, that one (plural, these, those), the latter, the 
former: le corps per it, et Vame est immortelle; cependant on 
neglige celle-ci, et tons les soins sont pour celui-la, the body 
perishes, and the soul is immortal ; yet the latter is neglected, 
and man bestows all his care on the former (yet man bestows 
all his care on the former, whilst he neglects the latter). In 
general propositions relating to persons, celui-ci, &c, celui- 
la, &c. are sometimes used instead of celui, &c, as antecedent 
to the relative, provided there be some words intervening 
between the two pronouns : ceux-la sont a blamer qui vous ont 
perdu par leur indulgence mal-entendue, those are to be blamed 
that have destroyed you by their mistaken over-indulgence. 
Celui-ci, &c, may, however, be followed also immediately by the 
relative, in sentences where the this, that, are placed in direct 
opposition : ces deux g argons ne sont jamais a" accord : si ce n'est 
pas celui-ci qui cherche querelle, c* est celui-la, these two boys 
can never agree : if it is not this one that seeks a quarrel, it is 
that one ; or where the relative may be considered to stand in 
lieu of a conjunction (parceque, since, because ; quoique, though, 
if) and one of the personal pronouns of the third person : void 
les deux vieilles dont je vous ai parte ; celle-ci qui a ses quatre- 
vingt-dix ans oien Sonne's, est plus roouste et active que celle-la, 
qui n'en a pas encore soixante-quinze, here are the two old 
women whom I mentioned to you; this one who is (though, 
though she is) past ninety, is (yet) more robust and active than 
that one who is (though, though she is) not yet seventy. 

Celui-la, ceux-la are used sometimes also, in conversational 
language, for cela, in expressions of approbation or disapproba- 
tion : celui-la est un peufort, this is coming it a little strong. 

IV. Ceci, cela, this, that, — this thing, that thing, — are both 
masculine, and have no plural. They apply only to things 
mentioned or pointed at in a general way, and not antecedently 
named; ceci is used with reference to the nearer, cela with 
reference to the remoter object : que veut dire ceci ? what does 
this mean ? ne touchez pas a cela, do not touch that ; ceci est 
hon, mais cela ne vaut rien, this is good, but that is worth 



POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 



89 



nothing (worthless, bad). If only one object is spoken of, cela 
may be nsed also in the sense of this : qu avez-vous paye pour 
cela ? what did yon pay for this ? 

In the familiar style, cela is applied sometimes to persons — 
both individually and collectively — but mostly with a con- 
temptuous meaning implied in it : cela se donne des airs de 
prince, et cela na pas le sou, the fellow gives himself the airs of 
a prince, and he is as poor as a churchmouse. 



3. Possessive Pronouns. 
Singular. 
Masculine. Feminine. 

le mien la mienne, mine (my own) 
le tien la tienne, thine (thy own) 
le sien la sienne, his, hers (his, her, one's own) 
le ndtre la notre, ours (our own) 
le vdtre la voti'e, yours (your own) 
le lew la leur, theirs (their own) 



Plural, 

Masculine. Feminine. 

les miens 

les tiens 

les siens 

les notres 

les vdtres 

les leurs 



les miennes. 
les tiennes. 
les sienues. 

I for both 
[ genders. 



Observations. 

I. The possessive pronouns agree in gender and number with 
the noun which they represent : they must always refer to a 
substantive antecedently expressed : nion pere et le votre vien- 
nent de sortir, my father and yours are just gone out (have just 
left) ; son frere s'est battu en duel avec le tien, his brother has 
fought a duel with thine ; . vos ennemis sont aussi les notres, 
your enemies are also ours. Thus it is incorrect, for instance, 
to commence a letter with, f ai regit la votre (instead of fai 
regu votre lettre), I have received yours — there being no noun 
enunciated here for the pronoun to refer to. 

Remark. — The possessive pronouns are, however, sometimes used also 
in the capacity of substantives ; in which capacity, of course, the pre- 
ceding rule does not apply to them ; le mien et le tien sont la source de 
toutes les querelles, the meum and tuum are at the bottom of all quarrels; 
il y met toujours du sien, he always adds some of his own. 

Les miens, les tiens, &c, used substantively, means my, thy, 
his, &c, friends, kindred, family, relations, tribe, party, &c. : les 
votres ont combattu vaillamment, your party (people, army, &c.) 
have fought valiantly ; il est alle en Ameriqiie avec les siens, he 
is gone to America with his family. 

II. Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, when used with 
the verb to be, in the sense of to belong, are rendered in French 
by a moi, ci toi, a lui, a elle, a nous, a votes, a eux, a elles : these 
shoes are mine, ses souliers sont a moi ; is this horse yours ? ce 
cheval est-il a vous ? 



90 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

III. Mine, thine, &c, in the English expressions, a friend of 
mine, an aunt of hers, a creditor of his, a trick of his, and others 
of a similar kind, are rendered in French by the corresponding 
possessive adjective : un de mes amis, une de ses tantes, un de 
ses creanciers, un de ses tours. 

4. Relative Pronouns. 

For both Genders and both Numbers. 

1. qui who, which (who, whom, in interrogative sentences). 

de qui, dont of whom, whose, of which. 

a qui to whom. 

que whom, which (never used with prepositions). 



Mas. Fern. 

lequel laquelle who, whom, which. 

duquel de laquelle of which (whose, of whom). 

auquel a laquelle to which, to whom. 

Plural. 
Mas. Fern. 



who, whom, which, 
of which (whose, of whom). 
auxquels auxquelles to which, to whom. 

3. quoi what, what thing, which thing. 

de quoi of what, of what thing, of which thing. 
a quoi to what, to what thing, to which thing. 

4. Relative pronominal adverbs : oil, where, when, whither 
(in which, into which) ; d'ou, whence, wherefrom (from which) ; 
par ou, through which, by which, with which, which way ; par 
ou is used in conjunction with passer, venir, &c, to denote 
motion through a place or part ; par ou etes-vous venu ? which 
way did you come ? through or by which way, or through or by 
which part, have you come? par ou commengerons-nous ? what 
shall we begin with ? where shall we commence at ? with which 
part shall we begin ? tout le monde sait maintenant les infdmes 
mot/ens, les viles menees, par ou Vusurpateur parvint a ses fins, 
everybody now knows the infamous means, the vile intrigues, 
by which the usurper attained his end. 

Observations. 

I. The relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender, 
number, and person : moi qui suis aimi, I who am beloved ; toi 
qui es bon et genereux, thou who art good and generous ; lui 
qui est innocent, he who is innocent; elle qui est bonne et 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 91 

genereu&e ; elles qui sont innocentes ; nous qui sommes estiniea, 
we who are esteemed ; vous qui etes battus, you who are beaten ; 
(when vous, as pronoun of polite address, is used in lieu of toi, 
the adjective or participle relating to the relative which repre- 
sents the personal pronoun, is, of course, put in the singular : 
vous qui etes battu,jou. who are beaten ;) la lettre qu.efai regue, 
the letter which I have received ; les lettres quefai regues. 

Remark. — The adjective having of itself neither gender nor number,* 
cannot serve as antecedent to a relative pronoun. Hence you must not 
say, for instance, nous etions deux qui etaient du meme avis, but, nous 
etions deux qui e"tions du meme avis, we were two of us of the same 
opinion (we were two who were of the same opinion), giving for antecedent 
to the relative pronoun the pronoun to which the adjective relates. How- 
ever, if the adjective is used substantively, and is accordingly preceded 
by the article, it is made the antecedent to the relative : vous etes le seul 
qui m'ait donne de bons conseils, you are the only one who has given me 
good advice (not qui m'ayez donne, who have given me) ; vous etes les cinq 
qui ont ete elus, you are the five who have been elected ; but vous etes cinq 
qui avez ete elus, you are five that have been chosen. 

II. The relative must always be placed as near as possible to 
its antecedent, so as to point out clearly and distinctly its 
correspondence with the latter : la paresse est un vice que les 
homines surmontent difficilement, laziness (indolence) is a vice 
which it is difficult to overcome ; il y a dans JBline des lettres 
dont le style est admirable, there are letters in Pliny (in Pliny 
letters) of which the style is admirable — (not il y a des lettres 
dans Pline dont, &c, as the dont might here equally refer to 
JPline) ; ou trouve dans ces discours des maximes qui sont con- 
tr aires a la morale, there are principles (maxims) enunciated in 
these lectures (there are in these lectures principles enunciated) 
which are contrary to morality — (not on trouve des maximes 
dans ces discours qui, &c, as the qui might here equally refer 
to discours). Deviations from this rule, are questionable even 
in poetry. 

Remark. — A pronoun antecedent forming the direct complement or 
regimen of a verb, may be separated from its relative by the latter : je le 
vois qui cow% I see him running. With regard to the intervention of a 
complement of the antecedent between the latter and its relative, see IV. 
(substitution of lequel, &c, for qui, que, dont). 

III. In English the relative pronouns are frequently under- 
stood ; in Prench they must always be expressed : the man 

* The adjective has of itself neither gender nor number, but it assumes 
these properties ; or, more correctly speaking, it adopts certain termina- 
tions, in order to mark more clearly the relation in which it stands to the 
noun or pronoun qualified by it. 



92 A GEAMMAE OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

you saw yesterday, V'homme que vous avez vu liter ; have you 
received the money you were expecting ? avez-vous regu V argent 
que vous attendiez ? 

IV. Qui, que, and dont, apply both to persons and things : 
lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles, duquel, de laquelle, desquels, 
desquelles, are substituted respectively for qui, que, and dont ; 
but in cases only where such substitution may serve to clear a 
sentence from ambiguity : je viens de parler au rnari de sa soeur 
lequel est sur le point de partir pour V Amerique, I have just 
spoken to his (or her) brother-in-law (to the husband of his 
[or her] sister), who is on the point of starting for America — 
(not qui est sur le point, since this would equally apply to 
soeur) ; je dots recevoir une lettre de mes enfants laquelle f attends 
avec impatience, I am to receive a letter from my children which 
I am impatiently waiting for — (not que f attends, since this 
would equally apply to enfants) ; la bonte de votre pere, de 
laquelle vous connaissez la grandeur, doit vous rassurer, the 
kindness of your father, of which you know the greatness 
(extent), must reassure you — (not dont vous connaissez, since 
this would equally apply to pere) . But whenever the meaning 
is perfectly clear, qui, que, and dont ought to be used : Vhomme 
qui est venu nous voir, the man who came to see us ; on Va 

forcee de remettre entre les mains de la police tous les objets de 
prix dont son amant, le pretendu comte, lui avait fait cadeau, 
she has been compelled to deliver up to the police all the 
valuables presented to her by her lover, the pretended count — 
(all the valuable articles of which her lover, the pretended 
count, had made her a present) ; c'est un brave gar con que tout 
le monde estime, he is a worthy fellow whom every one esteems. 

Remark. — With the verb plaire we sometimes find ce que instead of 
\ce qui : croyez-vous qu'il fera ce qail vous plaira (soil., qu'il fasse) 1 do you 
think he will do what it shall please you (he should do) ? il plaira figures 
here as the future of a unipersonal verb (il plait), and the que is governed 
by qu'il fasse understood. In croyez-vous qu'il fera ce qui vous plaira ? do 
you think he will do what shall please you, plaira figures as the future of 
the personal verb plaire, and qui is the subject. 

V. Qui preceded by a preposition (de, a, parmi, en, dans, 
avec, sous, &c.,) is used only of persons or things personified : 

le general B , a qui il s'adressa, lui donna le conseil de, &c, 

General B , to whom he applied, gave him the advice to, &c. ; 

rocher a qui je one plains, rock to whom I complain ; le 
lieutenant avec qui votre frere s'est bathe ce matin, na regu 
qxCune leg ere blessure au bras droit, the lieutenant with whom 
your brother fought this morning, has only received a slight 
wound in the right arm. 



"RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 9S 

Dont (or as the case may be, daquel, de laquelle, desquels, 
desqueUes — see IV.) is generally used instead of de qui, more 
particularly when a personal pronoun follows : le general dont 
il possedait toute la confiance, &c, the general whose entire 
confidence he enjoyed, &c. 

Sometimes a noun governed by a preposition intervenes 
between the antecedent and the relative, preceded by de, in 
which case duquel (de laquelle, desquels, desqueUes) must be 
used, except the noun substantive intervening happens to be 
governed by de or a, when de qui is equally admissible : le 
ministre a la sagesse duquel (or de qui) le pays doit sa prosperity 
the minister to whose wisdom (to the wisdom of whom) the 
country owes its prosperity ; cest un homme de la bonne foi 
duquel (or de qui) on ne peat douter, he is a man-of whose good 
faith (honesty) there can be no doubt ; la jeune fills avec le 
frere de laquelle fai voyage Vannee dernier e, the young gin 
with whose brother I travelled last year. 

Whose, denoting possession in a material sense, is rendered 
by a qui : the gentleman whose these houses are lives in 
London, le monsieur a qui sont ces maisons reside a Londres. 

De qui should be used when the verb expresses transmission 
from one individual to another : le soldat de qui je tiens cette 
nouvelle, the soldier from whom I had that intelligence. Dont 
is preferred to denote descent or origin: la famille dont sa 
fernme sort, the family of which his wife comes ; les chefs de 
brigands dont ces rois sont descendus, the robber chiefs from 
whom these kings are descended. The pronominal adverb 
cFou* is used with sortir, descendre, venir, to denote real 
motion or departure from, out of, &c. : la mile d'ou^e viens, the 
town from which (whence) I come (the town I come from) ; 
Venus remonte dans un nuage d'ou elle etait sortie, Venus 
reascends in a cloud from which (whence) she had issued 
forth. 

With the prepositions parmi, sous, and dans, lequel (laquelle, 
lesquels, lesquelles) is preferable to qui: les voleurs parmi 
lesquels il y avait plusieurs jeunes gens, &c, the robbers, among 
whom there were several young men, &c. ; les generaux sous 
lesquels il avait servi, the generals under whom he had served ; 

* The pronominal adverbs ou, d'ou, par ou, are used of things only. 
As regards ou, we may here incidentally remark, that after a substantive 
expressing an idea of time, the conjunction que may be substituted for oil : 
a V instant ou (or quit) entra, the moment he entered (when he entered, 
that he entered); a Vepoque ou (or que) la guerre eclata, at the time when 
(that) the war broke out. 



U4 A GRAMMAR OF THE TRENCH LANGUAGE. 

le regiment dans lequel il s'etait fait enroler, the regiment in 
which he had enlisted. But with the preposition en, qui should 
always be used : le ministre en qui le peuple avait confiance, the 
minister in whom the people had confidence. 

VI. As has already been stated in the preceding section, qui 
with a preposition can be used only of persons and things 
personified. "With reference to things, lequel, &c, must be 
substituted for it, whenever the relative is preceded by a 
preposition :* V etude des sciences physiques a laquelle (not a qui) 
je consacre mes loisirs, the study of the physical sciences to 
which I devote my leisure ; le cheval sur lequel il etait monte, 
the horse on which he was mounted. In poetry, however, 
departures from this rule cannot well be avoided, as locutions 
such as sous leyuel, par laquelle, &c, cannot be readily intro- 
duced into a poetic line without impairing its smoothness and 
harmony. 

VII. Que is used in some cases in lieu of a qui or dont : 
c'est a lui qu^7 faut vous adresser, it is to him that you must 
apply ; de la facon qu^7 a arrange V affaire, in the manner that 
he has arranged the matter ; the que corresponds here to the 
English that. 

VIII. That the demonstrative pronoun, antecedent to qui, is 
sometimes omitted, has been stated already in the section on 
the demonstrative pronouns (p. 87). 

IX. Quoi is only used of things, and is always preceded by a 
preposition ; it occurs, moreover, but rarely, in reference to a 
noun substantive : la chose a quoi f je pense, the matter of which 
I am thinking (what 1 am thinking about) ; les raisons pourquoi 
(pour quoi) fai pris cette resolution, the reasons why I have 
taken this resolution; voild les conditions sans quoi je ne peux 
rien faire, these are the terms without which I can do nothing. 
It is used principally in reference to a subject of a general and 
indefinite nature, such as ce, rien, and also after voild : e'est de 
quoi je ne m'occupe guere, that is what troubles me but little 
(that does not trouble me much — that engages my attention 
but little) ; tfest pourquoi on lui a refuse la permission de venir 
voir son pere, that is (the reason) why they have refused him 
permission to come and see his father (it is on that account 
that permission to visit his father has been denied him) ; il n'y 

* Except the preposition de; since, as we have seen in section IV., dont 
is used instead of duquel, &c, whenever the meaning is perfectly clear, so 
that no doubt can arise as to the antecedent to which the relative 
corresponds. 

f Even here, however, a laquelle, sans lesguelles, would be more correct. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 95 

a rien * sur quoi il y ait eu plus de discussion, there is nothing 
on which there has been more discussion ; voila de quoi je me 
plains, that is what I complain of; c'est en quoi vous vous 
tromjpez, it is here (in this, in that) that you are mistaken (there 
you are mistaken). 

De quoi is used extensively in the sense of something about, 
something of, something with, &c. : il rfy a pas de quoi me 
remercier, there is nothing to thank me for (there is no 
occasion for thanks — I have done nothing to deserve thanks) ; 
ce pauvre garcon n'a pas de quoi payer son loger, this poor fellow 
has not got the wherewithal to pay his rent ; on lui donnera de 
quoi ecrire, they will give him something to write about ; elle 
a de quoi pleurer, she has something to weep for ; a quoi is 
used similarly: il y trouvera a quoi s'appliquer, he will find 
something there (in it) to apply himself to (to occupy himself 
with). 

Quoi may also refer to a whole sentence : il a cru qu'on lui 
rendrait son argent, en quoi il s*est trompe (i. e., en croyant 
qrion lui rendrait son argent), he thought his money would be 
returned to him, in (the) which he made a mistake (in [the] 
which he was mistaken). 

Qui (lequel, laquelle), que, quoi absolute, i. e., used without 
an antecedent, as in questions both direct and indirect. 

Qui absolute stands for both who and whom : qui vous a dit 
cela? ivho has told you so? qui inviterons-nous ? whom shall 
we invite ? il ne sait pas qui lui a envoye cette lettre, he does 
not know who sent him that letter ; je voudrais lien savoir qui 
Von a envoye a Constantinople, I should like to know whom they 
have sent to Constantinople ; de qui parlez-vous ? of whom are 
you speaking? a qui Vavez-vous donne ? to whom have you 
given it ? It stands also for which (out of two or out of 
several), and whether^ (out of two). Qui absolute is used of 
persons only. Lequel (laquelle), in the sense of which (out of 
two or out of several), or whether (out of two), is used both of 
persons and things. Some grammarians put the preposition de 
before both nouns and pronouns following qui or lequel absolute, 
used in the sense of which or whether : Qui de vous ou de moi 

* After rien, dont is preferred to de quoi or duquel ; find we always say, 
tout ce dont, never tout ce de quoi. 

f Whether, in the sense of which one out of two, is not much used now by 
English, writers ; it is, however, perfectly legitimate. 



96 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

sera recompense, which (of us two) will be rewarded, you or 1 
(whether shall I or you be rewarded) ? Qui etait le plus grand 
general de Wellington ou de Soult ? which was the greater 
general (of the two) Wellington or Soult ? Lequel preferez- 
vous de Thackeray ou de Dickens? which do you prefer, 
Thackeray or Dickens ? Others reject the use of the preposi- 
tion de in sentences of this kind, and say : qui sera recompense, 
nous ou moi? Qui etait le plus grand general, Wellington ou 
Soult ? Lequel preferez-vous, Thackeray ou Dickens ? The 
former look upon the nouns or pronouns here as indirect 
complements of qui or lequel, and which accordingly require the 
preposition before them; the latter regard the sentence as 
consisting of three propositions, one full and two elliptical ones : 
qui sera recompense, vous (serez-vous recompense), ou moi (serai- 
je recompense) ; lequel preferez-vous, Thackeray (preferez-vous 
Thackeray) ou Dickens (preferez-vous Dickens) ? 

The Academy having abstained from pronouncing a decided 
opinion on the disputed point, either way may be considered 
correct. 

Que and quoi absolute are used of things only ; the former 
never takes a preposition before it, the latter is hardly ever 
used except with a preposition preceding or following it : que 
faites-vous la ? what are you doing there ? je ne sais que dire, I 
do not know what to say ; a quoi pensez-vous ? what are you 
thinking of? de quoi vous plaignez-vous ? what do you complain 
of? on ne sait pas avec quoi il fait son elixir, it is not known 
what his elixir is made of. Que is sometimes used instead 
of de quoi, a quoi: que (de quoi) sert a Vaveugle d* avoir des 
lunettes ? of what use are spectacles to the blind ? que (a quoi) 
sert la science sans la vertu? what avails learning without 
virtue ? 

Que is used before a substantive complement, quoi before an 
adjective complement, in elliptical sentences when the verb is 
understood : O ambition ! que de crimes fais-tu commettre a 
Thomme ! oh ! ambition, what crimes causest thou man to 
commit ! quoi de plus odieux que le mensonge ? what more 
hateful than lying (what can be more hateful than a lie) ? An 
infinitive following the adjective complement of quoi, takes the 
preposition de before it: quoi de plus aimahle que la vertu? 
what (is, can be) more amiable than virtue ? quoi de plus 
amusant que de lire Don Quixote? what (is, can be) more 
amusing than to read Don Quixote ? But when the verb is 
expressed, que is used instead of quoi : que peut-on voir de plus 
beau que ce tableau ? what more beautiful can one see than this 



PRONOUNS ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. 97 

picture (can there be seen anything more beautiful than this 
picture) ? 

Quoi is used without a preposition in, il (die) a un certain je 
ne sais quoi, he (she) has a certain indefinable something (there 
is a certain indefinable something about him (her) ; and in 
analogous sentences. It is used sometimes, also, in the same 
way as the English ivhat I how ! in exclamations preceding a 
question : quoi ! voics osez rne^dire cela en face I what ! you dare 
tell me so to my face ! 

"With regard to interrogative sentences in general, we may 
here incidentally remark, that when the subject of an inter- 
rogative sentence is a substantive, this is either placed at the 
head of the sentence, the pronoun being put after the verb — 
votre frere vous a-t-il donne de V argent ? has your brother given 
you money ? — or the interrogative form est-ce que ? is it that ? 
is prefixed to it, and the pronoun omitted : est-ce que votre 
frere vous a donne de V argent ? When the subject is a personal 
pronoun, the question may equally be asked by the form est-ce 
que: — Jinirez-Yous ce soir? est-ce que vous finirez ce soir ? In 
interrogative sentences with qui and que the form est-ce (qui 
est-ce qui ? who is it who ? qui est-ce que ? who is it whom ? 
2^'est-ce qui? what is it that? [subject], qu' est-ce que ? what 
is it that ? [direct complement]) is extensively used in conversa- 
tional language. When the questioner is desirous of obtaining 
some account or explanation regarding the person or thing 
forming the subject of the question, the forms qu' est-ce que ? 
what is it that ? or qu est-ce que c'est que ? what is it that it 
is that ? are resorted to : qu' est-ce qu.'un Jesuite ? what is a 
Jesuit ? qu'est-ce que c'est que V instinct ? what is instinct ? 



Additional Observations on the use of the Pronouns in general, 

I. The pronoun cannot correctly be used in French to 
represent a common noun taken in an indeterminate sense ; 
that is, not being preceded by either the article or one of the 
determinative adjectives. It is accordingly incorrect to say, 
for instance,^ vous fais grace, etj'espere que vous la meriterez, 
I grant you forgiveness, and I hope you will merit it ; il lui 
a fait peur, de laquelle il ne s'est pas encore remis, he has 
frightened him (put him in terror), from which he has not yet 
recovered (and he has not yet recovered from it) ; il nous a 
regies avec politesse qui nous a charmes, he has received us with 
politeness which has enchanted us. To make these phrases 



98 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

grammatically correct, the article, or one of the determinative 
adjectives, must be prefixed to the noun to which the pronoun 
refers ; and, if necessary, their construction must be altered so 
as to admit of this : je vous accorde votre grace, etj "espere, &c, 
I grant your pardon, and I hope, &c. ; il lui a fait une peur 
terrible, de laquelle, &c, he has given him a terrible fright from 
which, &c. ; il nous a recus avec une politesse qui nous a charmes, 
he has received us with a politeness, &c. In the same way, 
etre en sante may be replaced in similar phrases by jouir de 
la sante, &c. In cases where the genius of the language opposes 
the article or determinative adjective being prefixed to the 
noun, a different turn must be given to the sentence ; e. g., 
quand nous mimes en mer, elle etait paisible, when we put to 
sea, it (the sea) was calm. To say en la mer, would be contrary 
to the genius of the French language ; we give, therefore, here 
a different turn to the phrase, and say : quand nous nous 
embarqudmes, la mer etait paisible, the sea was calm when we 
embarked. 

II. A pronoun should never be repeated in a sentence, as 
the representative of another object than that to which it refers 
in the first instance. Hence it is incorrect to say, for instance, 
George ne put rien refuser a Jacques, il lui envoy a done le cheval 
qrf'A lui avait fait demander, George could not refuse James 
anything, he sent him therefore the horse which he had asked 
him for ; the first il refers to George, the first lui to Jacques, the 
second il to Jacques, the second lui to George ; la politesse exige 
qu* on prete attention a ce qu* on nous dit, politeness demands 
that one should listen to what one says to us (politeness 
demands that we should listen to what is said to us) ; the first 
on here represents nous (ourselves), the second stands for le 
ononde, les autres ; j *ai lu avec plaisir cet ouvrage, qui a ete 
compose par une personne, qui est versee dans les sciences qui 
ont pour objet V etude de la nature, I have read with pleasure 
this work which has been composed by a person who is versed 
in the sciences, which have for their object the study of nature 
(I have read with pleasure this work, written — which has been 
written — by a person well versed in the sciences, having for 
their object the study of nature) ; the first qui here relates to 
ouvrage, the second to personne, the third to sciences. To 
render these sentences correct, the number of pronouns must 
be diminished, or an equivalent pronoun of a different class 
must be substituted for one of them : George ne pouvant rien 
refuser a Jacques, envoy a a celui-ci le cheval qu'il lui {envoy a a 
ce dernier le cheval que celui-ci lui) avait fait demander ; la 



COMPLEMENT OF THE PRONOUNS. 99 

politesse exige que nous pretions attention a ce qu*on nous dit ; 
fai hi avec plaisir cet ouvrage. compose par une personne vemee 
dans les sciences qui ont pour objet V etude de la nature. 

III. A pronoun should never be used in a way to admit of 
an ambiguous construction. Hence do not say, for instance, 
Virgile a imite Homere dans tout ce quH a de beau, because 
the il may apply here equally to Virgil and to Homer ; but 
say, Virgile a imite Homere dans tout ce que celui-ci a de beau, 
Yirgil has imitated Homer in all the beauties of the latter ; or, 
Virgile dans tout ce qu il a de beau, a imite Homere, Yirgil in 
all his beauties, has imitated Homer. 

IV. "With regard to the agreement of the pronoun with the 
noun or nouns substantive to which it refers, the same rules 
hold good which have been laid down for the agreement of the 
qualificative adjective with the noun or nouns qualified by the 
latter (see p. 55). 

Complement (Regimen) of the "Pronouns. 

The pronoun being the representative of the substantive, 
may, of course, like the latter, be accompanied by a comple- 
ment. This complement consists of the preposition de, followed 
either by a substantive, or by another pronoun, or by an infini- 
tive : il a achete les chevaux de mon pere et ceux de mon frere, 
he has bought the horses of my father and those of my brother ; 
chacun de vous recevra deux francs par jour, every one of you 
will receive two francs a day ; le desir de voyager et celui de 
revoir son frere le determinerent de se rendre en France, the 
desire to travel, and that of seeing his brother again, induced 
him to go to France. 



f 2 



100 A GRAMMAR OP THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



CHAPTER V. 



THE VERB. 
Introductory Remarks. 

I. The French verbs may be divided : — 

a. Into abstract and concrete verbs. Properly speaking, 
there is but one abstract verb, viz., etre, to be, which is termed 
also the substantive verb ; however, the verbs avoir, to have, and 
devenir, to become, to grow, partake also in some respects of 
the nature of etre, and may accordingly be ranked in some 
measure with the latter as abstract verbs. All other verbs are 
called concrete or adjective verbs, formed, in fact, by the combi- 
nation of the substantive verb etre with an adjective : thus, 
parler, to speak, is formed of etre and the adjective parlant, 
speaking (to be speaking) ; je vois, I see, of je suis, I am, and 
voyant, seeing (I am seeing — infinitive, to be seeing, to see) ; 
vous dites, you say, of vous etes, you are, and disant, saying (you 
are saying — infinitive, to be saying, to say), &c. 

b. Into transitive and intransitive verbs. The former express 
an action emanating from the subject or agent, and bearing 
directly upon another person or thing, which is called the direct 
complement of the verb, because it serves to complete the signifi- 
cation of the verb ; or, in other words, the idea enunciated or 
conveyed by it; it is called direct, because it completes the 
signification of the verb without the aid and intervention of a 
preposition : le pere aime ses enfants, the father loves his 
children ; ses enfants is here the direct complement of aime (est 
aimant) ; je cheris la gloire, I love glory ; la gloire is here the 
direct complement of cheris (suis cJierissant) . The intransitive 
verbs, which are termed also neuter verbs, express either a 
state or condition of the subject, or an action confined to the 
agent; or, finally, an action emanating from the subject, or 
agent, and bearing indirectly upon another person or thing, 
which is called the indirect complement of the verb ; it is termed 
indirect, because it requires the aid of a preposition (de, a, pour, 
avec, sans, &c.) to join it to the verb : it parte a votre sceur, he 



k THE VEEB INTEODUCTOEY EEMAEKS. 101 

speaks to your sister ; a voire sceur is here the indirect comple- 
ment of parte {est parlant\ The term indirect complement is, 
however, bestowed also upon the prepositive complements of 
those intransitive verbs which express a state or condition of 
the subject, or an action confined to the agent. The transitive 
verbs may, besides the direct complement, have also an indirect 
complement : le pere a donne le livre a son fits ; le livre is here 
the direct, a son fits the indirect complement of a donne (a ete 
donnant) . 

Remark. — The conjunctive pronouns lui, leur, dont, en, y, are indirect 
complements, on account of the preposition which they enclose within 
them (lui — a lui, leur — a eux, dont — duquel (de lequel), en — de cela, y — 
a cela). The conjunctive pronouns me, te, se, nous, vous, may be either 
direct or indirect complements ; they are direct complements when they 
stand for the absolute forms, moi, toi, lui, nous, vous : il m'aime, i.e., il aime 
moi, he loves me ; je t'appelle, i.e., j'appelle toi, I call thee, &c. ; they are 
indirect complements when they stand for a moi, a toi, a lui, a nous, a vous : 
mon pere m'a donne un livre, i.e., mon pere a donne un livre a moi, my 
father has given me a book (given a book to me) ; je vous reponds, i.e., je 
reponds a vous, I answer you (I reply to you), &c. 

II. As in most other languages, so also in French, verbs are 
sometimes both transitive and intransitive : il casse la corde, he 
breaks the string ; la corde casse, the string breaks. 

III. The transitive verbs alone are susceptible of forming 
the passive voice. There are a few transitives, as avoir, to 
have, epouser, to espouse, to marry, which are not used in the 
passive voice. 

IV. The pronominal or reflexive verbs are conjugated with 
two pronouns of the same person ; as, je me, tu te, il se, nous 
nous, vous vous, Us se. Some of the pronominal verbs are 
essentially pronominal ; i. e., they are never used without two 
pronouns. The second pronoun of an essentially pronominal 
verb forms always the direct complement of the latter: 
s'abstenir ; jevcfabstiens, I abstain, refrain (I withhold myself 
from). The verb s'arroger, to arrogate to one's self, forms the 
only exception from this rule. 

V. Personal verbs are those which are conjugated throughout 
(in their personal modes) with the three grammatical persons. 
Impersonal, or, more correctly speaking, unipersonal verbs, are 
those which are only used in the third person singular, in 
conjunction with the vague and indefinite word il, it : il faut, 
il y a, il importe, &c. The word il here is not the actual subject 
of the verb however, but it simply represents and announces 
that subject which follows in the form of a complement : il 
est necessaire d'etudier, is is necessary to study (etudier est 



102 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

necessaire, to study is necessary, — etudier is here the actual 
subject). True, in il neige, it snows ; il pleut, it rains ; il tonne, 
it thunders, the actual subject is not expressed after the verb ; 
but then, at all events, it is present to the mind. 

Remark. — Neuter and pronominal verbs, and the passive voice of transit 
fives are sometimes accidentally employed as unipersonal verbs : il tombe 
de la pluie, it rains ; il vint un homme, there came a man ; il se presente 
une difficulty, a difficulty presents itself ; il a e'te" pris des mesures, measures 
have been taken. 



Sect. I. — Conjugation of the Verbs. 
Introductory Remarks. 

I. The French verbs have, like the English, five modes or 
moods, viz., the indicative, the subjunctive, the conditional, the 
imperative, and the infinitive. But whereas the English verbs 
have only two simple tenses, viz., the present and imperfect, the 
French verbs have four ; the present, the imperfect, the preterite 
definite or perfect, and the first {simple or absolute) future. 

II. The past tenses*: the preterite indefinite or compound 
perfect, the preterite anterior or paulo-ante pluperfect, and the 
pluperfect ; and the future perfect {future past or exact future) ; 
and also the conditional past, are formed by the conjunction 
of the present, imperfect, perfect {preterite definite), compound 
perfect {preterite indefinite*), simple future, and conditional 
present of one of the auxiliary verbs avoir, to have, or etre, to 
be, with the participle past of the verb. 

Note A. — With the auxiliary verb avoir are conjugated-- 

a. All transitive verbs. 

b. Most intransitive verbs expressing an action. Exceptions : aller, 
arriver, choir, decider, eclore, mourir, nattre, tomber, venir, and its com- 
pounds, devenir, intervenir, parvenir, provenir, revenir, survenir, which are 
conjugated with Ure. 

c. Certain unipersonal verbs : il a fallu, il a importe, il a tonne, &c. 
Note B. — With the auxiliary verb etre are conjugated — 

a. All pronominal or reflexive verbs. 

b. The greater number of unipersonal verbs : il est arrive des evenements, 
il est resulte, &c. 

Note C. — Some intransitive verbs, as accourir, cesser, croitre, dechoir, 
degenerer, descendre, disparaitre, echapper, echoir, empirer, entrer, grandir, 
monter, partir, passer, r ester, sortir, vieillir, &c, are conjugated with avoir, 
when it is the action or fact, with etre, when it is the state or condition 
expressed by the verb which is uppermost in the mind : elle a disparu 



* The compound past tense formed of the preterite indefinite of an 
auxiliary, and the participle past of the verb, is rarely used. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERBS — INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 103 

subitement, she has suddenly disappeared ; elle est disparue depuis deux ans 
(literally, she is disappeared since two years), she disappeared two years 
ago, and has not been heard of since ; la fievre a cesse hier, the fever 
ceased (has ceased) yesterday ; la fievre est cessee depuis quelgue temps 
(literally, the fever is ceased since some time), the fever has been gone for 
some time past ; la rivibx a monte rapidement, the river has rapidly risen ; 
it est monte, he is gone up ; tandis qu'on le cherchait a Milan, il avait passe 
en Suisse, whilst they were searching for him in Milan, he had passed into 
Switzerland ; les chaleurs sont passees, the hot weather is gone, &c. 

Remark. — Some of these intransitives are sometimes used in an 
(apparently) transitive capacity ; that is, they are accompanied by a direct 
complement, in which case they take always the verb avoir as auxiliary : 
il a passe la nuit sans dormir, t he has passed a sleepless night ; il a monte 
l'escalier, he has mounted (ascended) the staircase ; on l'a sorti d*une affaire 
desagreable, they have got him out of a disagreeable fix. 

Note D. — Some intransitives are conjugated either with avoir, or with 
itre, according to the different acceptation in which they happen to be 
used. Thus, convenir, in the sense of to suit, to become, to be proper, takes 
avoir; whilst in the sense of to agree, to confess, it is conjugated with etre: 
la place lui aurait convenu sans doute, si seulement il e'tait convenu du salaire, 
the place would have suited him well enough, if only he had agreed to the 
salary. Demeurer, in the sense of to remain, to be left, takes etre : plus de 
trois mille hommes sont demeures sur le champ de bataille, more than three 
thousand men remained (have remained, were left) on the battle-field (on 
the ground) ; in the sense of to stay, to reside, to sojourn, it is conjugated 
with avoir : il a demeure dix ans a Londres, he has resided ten years in 
London. 

Hester, in the sense of to stop, to sojourn, takes avoir : il a reste deux jours 
a Calais, he stopped (has stopped) two days at Calais ; in any other accep- 
tation it is conjugated with etre: il est reste tout interdit, he remained (was, 
stood) quite amazed (confused), &c. 

Expirer, to expire, is said both of persons and of things ; of persons it is 
used in the sense of mourir, to die, and is conjugated with avoir : il a 
expire dans mes bras, he (has) died (expired) in my arms. Of things it is 
used in the sense of to come to an en t d, to be at an end, to run out, and takes 
avoir to mark the action or fact: son bail a expire hier 9 his lease has 
expired yesterday ; etre to mark the state : la treve est expiree, the truce has 
expired (the truce is at an end). 

We say, cette faute m'est echappee, this fault is a slip of mine ; cette faute 
m'a echappe, this fault has escaped my attention (scrutiny). 

III. The passive voice is formed by the conjunction of the 
verb etre, throughout all its modes and tenses, with the 
participle past of the verb. 



104 



A GEAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



THE AUXILIARIES. 

1. A VOIR, To have* 

Indicatite Mode. 



PRESENT. 



j'ai, I have. 
tu as. 

il (elle, on) a. 
nous avons. 
■vous avez. 
Us (elles) ont. 

IMPERFECT. 

j ' } avals, I had, I was having. 

tu avals. 

il (elle, on) avalt. 

nous avlons. 

vous avlez. 

Us (elles) avalent. 

. PRETERITE DEFINITE, Or PERFECT. 

j'eus, I had. 

tu eus. 

■il (elle, on) eut. 

nous eumes. 

vous eutes. 

Us (elles) eurent. 

PRETERITE INDEFINITE Or 
COMPOUND PERFECT. 

j'al eu, I have had. 

tu as eu. 

II (elle, on) a eu. 

nous avons t u. 

vous avez eu, 

Us (elles) ont eu. 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR, OT PAULO-ANTE 
PLUPERFECT. 

j 'eus eu, I had had. 

tu eus eu. 

il (elle, on) eut eu. 

nous eumes eu. 

vous eutes eu. 

Us (elles) eurent eu. 

PLUPERFECT. 

j 'avals eu, I had had. 

tu avals eu. 

II (elle, on) avalt eu. 

nous avlons eu. 

vous avlez eu. 

Us (elles) avalent eu. 

FIRST FUTURE. 

j 'aural, I shall or will have. 

tu auras. 

U (elle, on) aura. 

nous aurons. 

vous aurez. 

Us (elles) auront. 

SECOND FUTURE. 

j 'aural eu, I shall or will have had. 

tu auras eu. 

II (elle, on) aura eu. 

nous aurons eu. 

vous aurez eu. 

Us (elles) auront eu. 



Conditional Mode. 



PRESENT (FIRST CONDITIONAL). 

^ aurals, I should or would have. 

tu aurals. 

II (elle, on) curait. 

nous aurions. 

vous aurlez. 

Us (tiles) anralent. 



PAST (SECOND CONDITIONAL). 

j' aurals eu, I should or would have 

had. 
tu aurals eu. 
II (elle, on) aurait eu. 
nous aurions eu. 
vous aurlez eu. 
Us (elles) auralent eu. 



* Avoir is auxiliary only when accompanied by the participle past of 
another verb. In all other cases it is an independent transitive verb, and 
corresponds to the English to have, to possess. 



AUXILIARY A r ERBS. 



105 



Or, also, 
j 'eusse eu 
tu eusses eu 
il (die, on) eut eu 



nous eussions eu 

vous eussiez eu 

Us (elles) eussent eu. 



Imperatiye Mode.* 

Singular, aie, have thou, do thou have. 
Plural. ayons, let us have. 

ayez, have ye or you, do ye have. 



Subju^ctiye Mode. 



PRESENT OT FUTURE. 

que j' aie, that I (may) have. 

que tu aies. 

qu'il (qu'elle, qu'on) ait. 

que nous ayons. 

que vous ayez. 

qu'ils (qu'elles) aient. 

IMPERFECT. 

que j 'eusse, that I had, that I might 

have. 
que tu eusses. 
qu'il (qu'elle, qu'on) eut, 
que nous eussions. 
que vous eussiez. 
qu'ils (qu\ " 



PERFECT. 



que j 'aie eu, that I (may) have had. 

que tu aies eu. 

qu'il (qu'elle, qu'on) ait eu. 

que nous ayons eu. 

que vous ayez eu. 

quits (qu'elles) aient eu. 

PLUPERFECT. 

que j ''eusse eu, that I had had, that 1 
might have had. 
que tu eusses eu. 
qu'il (qu'elle, qu'on) eut eu. 
que nous eussions eu. 
que vous eussiez eu. 
qu'ils (qu'elles) eussent eu. 



Ifetnitiye Mode. 



PRESENT. 

avoir, to have. 



PAST. 

avoir eu, to have had. 



Paeticiples. 

PRESENT. PAST. 

ayant, having. eu (eue) had. 

COMPOUND PAST. 

ayant eu, having had. 



* A direct command, request, exhortation, advice, warning, prohibition, 
can be addressed properly only to the person spoken to ; the French 
language, however, has a simple imperative form also for the first person 
plural; but for the third person singular and plural, the corresponding 
persons of the subjunctive present are had recourse to. 

f 3 



106 



A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



2. ETRE, To be.* 
Indicative Mode. 



PRESENT. 

je suis, I am. 

tu es. 

il (elle, on) est, 

nous sommesi 

vous ites. 

Us {elles) sont. 

IMPERFECT. . 

j'etals, I was, I was being. 

tu etals. " 

il (elle, on) etalt. 

nous etlons. 

vous etlez. 

Us (elles) etalent. 

PRETERITE DEFINITE Or PERFECT. 

je fus, I was. 

tu fus. 

il (elle, on) fut. 

nous fumes. 

vous futes. 

Us (elles) furent. 

PRETERITE INDEFINITE OV 
COMPOUND PERFECT. 

j 'ai ete, I have been. 

tu as ete. 

%l (elle, on) a ete. 

nous avons ete. 

vous avez ete. 

Us (elles) ont ete. 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR, OV PAULO-ANTE 
PLUPERFECT. 

j 'eus ete, I had been. 

tu eus ete. 

il (elle, on) eut ete, 

nous eumes ete. 

voujS eutes ete. 

Us (elles) eurent ete. 

PLUPERFECT. 

j 'avals ete, I had been. 

tu avals ete. 

II (elle, on) avait ete. 

nous avlons eU. 

vous avlez ete. 

Us (elles) avalent ete. 

FIRST FUTURE. 

je serai, I shall or will be. 

tu seras. 

il (elle, on) sera. 

nous serons. 

vous serez. 

Us (elles) seront. 

SECOND FUTURE. 

,; 'aural ete, I shall have been. 

tu auras ete. 

II (elle, on) aura ete. 

nous aurons ete. 

vous aurez ete. 

Us (elles) auront ete. 



Conditional Mode. 



PRESENT (FIRST CONDITIONAL). 

je serais, I should or would be. 

tu serais. 

il (elle, on) seralt. 

nous serious. 

vous serlez. 

Us (elles) seralent. 



PAST (SECOND CONDITIONAL.) 

j 'aurais ete, I should or would have 

been. 
tu aurais ete. 
il (elle* on) auralt ete. 
nous aurlons ete. 
vous auriez ete. 
Us (elles) auralent ete. 



* Etre is auxiliary only when accompanied by the participle past of 
another verb. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERBS. 



107 



Or, also, 
j'eusse etc. 
tu eusses ete. 
il (elUy on) eut ete. 



nous eussiovs ete. 

ious eussiez ete. 

ils {elks) eussent ete. 



Impeeative Mode. 

Singular, sois, be thou, do thou be. 
Plural. soyons, let us be. 

soyez, be you or ye, do ye be. 



Subjunctive Mode. 



PRESENT Or FUTURE. 

que je sois, that I (may) be. 

que tu sois. 

qu'il (qu'elle, qu'on) soit. 

que nous soyons. 

que vous soyez. 

qu'ils (qu'elles) soient. 

IMPERFECT. 

que je fusse, that I were, that I might 

be. 
que tu fusses, 
qu'il (qu'elle, qu'on) jut. 
que nous fussions. 
que vousfussiez. 
qu'ils (qu'elles) fussent. 



PERFECT. 

quej 'aie ete, that I (may) have been. 

que tu aies ete. 

quHl (qu'elle, quon) ait ete. 

que nous ayons ete. 

que vous ayez ete. 

qu'ils (qu'elles) aient ete. 

PLUPERFECT." 

que j 'eusse ete, that I had been, that 
I might have been. 
que tu eusses ete. 
qu'il (qu'elle, qu'on) eut ete. 
que nous eussions ete. 
que vous eussiez ete. 
qu'ils (qu'elles) eussent ete. 



PRESENT. 

etre, to be. 



Infinitive Mode. 



PAST. 

avoir ete, to have been. 



Paeticiples. 

PRESENT. PAST. 

etant, being. ete, been. 

COMPOUND PAST. 

ayant ete, having been. 



We have four conjugations in French : * — 
The verbs of the first conjugation terminate in the infinitive 
in er. 

Those of the second in ir. 



* Though the third and fourth hardly deserve the name of conjugations, 
consisting as they do only of a small group of verbs conjugated alike. 



108 



A GRAMMAR OP THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



Those of the third in oir (or rather in evoir — the verbs in oir, 
not preceded by ev being all irregular). 

Those of the fourth in re. 

That part of the infinitive which remains after rescinding the 
termination, is called the root of the verb : the last letter of the 
root is called the characteristic of the verb. Thus in parl-er, 
I is the characteristic ; in Jln-ir, n ; in receY-oir, v ; in rend-re, 
d ; in etudi-er, i ; in pay-er, y ; in cre-er, e ; in ri~re, i, &c. 

In conjugating a verb, the respective terminations of the 
different modes, tenses, &c. (which will be found here below 
severally nnder the head of the respective conjugations), are 
added to the root of the verb in the simple modes, tenses, &c. ; 
the compound modes, tenses, &c, being formed, as already 
stated, by the conjunction of one of the auxiliaries with the 
participle past of the verb. 



. A. First Conjugation. 

The immense majority of French verbs are of the first 
conjugation. 

The respective terminations of the first conjugation are — 

Infinitive present — er. 

Participle present — ant. 

Participle past — e (feminine, ee ; plural, masculine, es ; 
feminine, ees). 

Indicative Mode. 



PRESENT. 


PRETERITE DEFINITE OT PERFECT. 


Singular. 


Singular. 


1st person, e. 
2nd „ es. 
3rd „ e. 


1st person, ai. 
2nd „ as. 
3rd „ a. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


1st person, ons. 
2nd „ ez. 
3rd „ ent. 


1st person, dmes. 
2nd „ dtes. 
3rd „ event. 


IMPERFECT. 


FIRST FUTURE. 


Singular. 


Singular. 


1st person, ais. 
2nd „ ais. 
3rd „ ait. 


1st person, erai. 
2nd „ eras. 
3rd „ era. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


1st person, ions. 
2nd „ iez. 
3rd ,, aient. 


1st person, erons. 
2nd „ erez. 
3rd „ eront. 



FIEST CONJUGATION. 



109 



Conditional Mode. 





FIRST 


CONDITIONAL. 




Singular. 






Plural. 




1st person. 


erais. 




1st person. 


erions. 


2nd „ 


erais. 




2nd „ 


eriez. 


3rd „ 


emit. 




3rd „ 


eraient. 



Subjunctive Mode. 



PRESENT Or FUTURE. 

Singular. 
1st person. e. 
2nd „ es. 

3rd „ e. 

Plural. 
1st person. ions. 
2nd „ iez. 

3rd ,, ent. 



IMPERFECT. 
■Singular. 



1st person. 
2nd „ 
3rd „ 

Plural. 
1st person. 
2nd „ 
3rd „ 



asse. 

asses. 

at. 

assions. 

assiez. 

assent. 



Imperative Mode. 



2nd person singular. 
1st person plural. 
2nd 



e (es, before y or en), 
ons. 

ez. 



AIMER, To love. 
Indicative Mode. 



PRESENT. 

j'aime, I love. 

tu aimes. 

it {die, on) aime. 

nous aimons. 

vous aimez. 

Us (elles) aiment. 

IMPERFECT. 

j'aimais, I loved, I was loving. 

tu aimais. 

il (elle, on) aimait. 

nous aimions. 

vous aimiez. 

Us (elles) aimaient. 



PRETERITE DEFINITE. 

j'aimai, I loved. 

tu aimas. 

il (elle, on) aima. 

nous airndmes. 

vous aimdtes. 

Us (elles) aimer ent. 

PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 

j'ai aime, I have loved. 

tu as aime. 

il (elle, on) a aime, 

nous avons aime. 

vous avez aime. 

Us (elles) ont aime. 



110 



A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE, 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR Or PAULO-ANTE 
PLUPERFECT. 

feus aime, I had loved. 

tu eus aime, 

il (elle, on) eut aime. 

nous eumes aime. 

vous eutes aime. 

Us (elles) eurent aime.* 

PLUPERFECT. 

j'avais aime, I had loved. 
tu avais aime. 
il {elle, on) avait aime. 
nous avions aime, 
vous aviez aime. 



Us (elles) avaient aime. 



FIRST FUTURE. 

f aimer ai, I shall or will love. 

tu aimeras. 

il (elle, on) aimera. 

nous aimerons. 

vous aimerez. 

Us (elles) aimeront. 

SECOND FUTURE. 

faurai aime, I shall or will have 
loved. 
tu auras aime". 
il (elle, on) aura aime, 
nous aurons aimL 
vous aurez aime. 
Us (elles) auront aime. 



Conditional Mode. 



PRESENT Or FIRST CONDITIONAL. 

f aimer ais, I should or would love. 

tu aimerais. 

il (elle, on) aimerait. 

nous aimerions. 

vous aimeriez. 

Us (elles) aimeraient. 

PAST Or SECOND CONDITIONAL. 

j'aurais aime, I should or would 
have loved. 
tu aurais aime. 
il (elle, on) await aime. 

Imperative Mode. 

2nd person singular, aime (aimes) love, love thou, do thou love. 

1st person plural. aimons, let us love. 

2nd „ aimez, love you or ye, do you or ye love. 

Subjunctive Mode. 



nous aurions aime. 

vous auriez aime. 

Us (elles) auraient aime. 



Or, also, 
j'eusse aime. 
tu eusses aime. 
il (elle, on) eut aimL 
nous eussions aime. 
vous eussiez aime. 
Us (elles) eussent aime. 



PRESENT or FUTURE. 

que j' aime, that I (may) love, 

que tu aimes. 

qiCil (qu'elle, qu'on) aime. 

que nous aimions. 

que vous aimiez. 

quHls (qu" elles) aiment. 



IMPERFECT. 

que j'aimasse, that I loved, that 
I might love. 
que tu aimasses. 
qu'il (quelle, qu'on) aimdt. 
que nous aimassions. 
que vous aimassiez. 
qu'ils (qu'elles) aimassent. 



* The French language has a fourth preterite, which is very rarely used, 
however, and which we shall therefore omit from the paradigms of the 
other conjugations. It is formed of the preterite indefinite of avoir (or 
etre) and the participle past of the verb : j'ai eu aime, I have had loved, 
tu as eu aime, il (elle, on) a eu aime, nous avons eu aime, vous avez eu aime, 
Us (elles) ont eu aime. 



OBSERVATIONS ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 



Ill 



PERFECT. 

que j'aie aime, that I (may) have 
loved. 
que tu aies aime. 
quHl {quelle, qu'on) ait aime. 
que nous ayons aime. 
que vous ayez aime. 
qu'ils (qu'elles) aient aime. 



PLUPERFECT. 

que feusse aime, that I had loved, 
that I might have loved. 
que tu eusses aime. 
qu'il (qu'elle, qu'ori) eut aime. 
que nous eussions aime. 
que vous eussiez aime. 
qu'ils (qtielles) eussent aime. 



Infinitive Mode. 



PRESENT. 

aimer, to love. 



PRESENT. 

aimant, loving. 



PAST. 

avoir aime, to have loved. 



Participles. 



PAST. 

aime (aimee, aimes, aimees), loved. 



COMPOUND PAST. 

ayant aime, having loved. 

Observations. 

I. The verbs in ger, interpose a mute e* between the 
characteristic (g) and the terminations beginning with a or o : 
mang-er (manger), to eat ; nous mang-e-ons (mangeons), we eat ; 
je mang-e-ais (mangeais), I was eating ; il mang-e-a (mange a), 

he ate, he did eat, &c. 

II. The verbs in cer, mark the characteristic (c) with a 
cedilla * before the terminations beginning with a oy o : com- 
menc-er (commencer) , to begin ; nous commenc-ons (commengons) , 
we begin ; il menag-a (menaga), he threatened, &c. 

III. If the last syllable of the root has for its vowel an e 
marked with the acute accent (e), this e acute is changed to e 
grave before a mute syllable : consider-er (considerer) , to con- 
sider ; je consider-e (considere) ; je consider-erai (consider erai) ; 
regl-er (regler), to regulate, rule, &c. ; je regl-e (regie) ; je 
regl-erai (reglerai), &c. 

Exception. — The verbs in eger keep the e throughout the 
conjugation. 

IV. If the last syllable of the root has for its vowel a mute e, 
followed by any other consonant, except I or t, the e mute of 



* The mute e and the cedilla serve here simply to secure the soft pro- 
nunciation of the characteristics g and c, throughout the conjugation of 
the verb. 



112 A GRAMMAR OF TRE FRENCH LANGUAC4E. 

that final syllable of the root is changed to e before a mute 
syllable: lev-er (lever), to raise, &c. ; je leve, I raise ; je lever ai, 
I shall raise, &c. 

V. The verbs in eler and eter (but not those in eler and eter 
— see III.)? double the characteristic (I or t) before a mute e: 
appel-er (appeler), to call; j'appell-e (appelle) ; - f appell-erai 
(appellerai) ; jet-er (Jeter), to throw; il jett~e (jeite) ; il jett- 
erait (jetterait), &c. 

Remark.— The Academy excepts from this rule the following six verbs : 
acheter, bourreler, deceler, geler, harceler, peler, and instead of doubling the 
characteristic, changes the mute e of the last syllable of the root of these 
verbs to e before a mute syllable (in conformity with IV.). It would be 
difficult, however, to assign any intelligible ground for this exception, and 
the student had therefore better conform with respect to the six verbs 
here named, to the general rule on the verbs in eler and eter. 

VI. The verbs in yer, change the characteristic (y) to i 
before a mute e: ploy-er (ployer), to bend; je ploi-e (ploie, 
instead ofploje) ; je ploi-erai (ploierai, instead of ployerai), &c. 

Remark. — In grassey-er (grasseyer) the characteristic (y) is usually re- 
tained throughout the conjugation. The Academy retains the y also 
throughout in all verbs ending in ayer — another unnecessary exception. 

VII. In verbs ending in ouer or uer, a diaeresis ( •• ) is placed 
over the i of the termination of the first and second person 
plural of the imperfect indicative, and present subjunctive : 
jou-er (jouer), to play; nous jou'ions, we played; que vous 
jou'iez, that you (may) play; tu-er (tuer), to kill; nous tuions, 
we killed ; que vous tuiez, that you (may) kill, &c. 



VIII. Irregular Verbs of the First Conjugation. 

1. Alter, to go, is irregular, a in the present indicative, 
singular, and third person, plural— -je vais, tu vas, il (elle, on) 
va, Us (elles) vont ; b in the corresponding persons of the present 
subjunctive — que faille, que tu allies, quit (quelle, quon) aille ; 
qu'ils (qu' elles) aillent. c Future and conditional : firai, tu 
iras, il (elle, on) ira, nous irons, vous irez, Us (elles) iront ; 
firais, tu irais, il (elle, on) irait, nous irions, vous iriez, Us 

(elles) iraient. d The second person singular of the imperative 
va ; (before y, vas). The other parts are regular. 

2. JEnvoyer, to send, is irregular in the future and con- 
ditional : f 'enverrai, tu enverras, il (elle, on) enverra, nous 
enverrons, vous enverrez, Us (elles) enverront ; f enverrais, tu 



SECOND CONJUGATION. 



113 



enverrais, il (elle, on) enverrait, nous enverrions, vous enverriez, 
Us (elles) enverraient. The other parts are regular. 

Note. — Renvoyer is conjugated like envoyer. The same rule applies 
equally to all compounds of irregular verbs, with a few 'partial exceptions. 

3. Tisser, to weave, makes in the participle past, tissu, tissue. 



B. Second Conjugation. 

The respective terminations of the second conjugation, are : — 
Infinitive present — ir. 
Participle present — is s ant. 

Participle past — i (feminine, ie ; plural, masculine, is ; 
feminine, ies). 

Indicative Mode. 



PRESENT 




PRETERITE 


DEFINITE 


Or PERFECT. 


Singular 






Singular. 




1st person. 
2nd „ 


is. 
is. 


1st person. 
2nd „ 


is. 

is. 


3rd „ 


it. 


3rd 


» 


it. 


Plural. 






PluraL 




1st person. 
2nd „ 


issons. 
issez. 


1st person. 
2nd „ 


imes. 
ites. 


3rd „ 


issent. 


3rd 


if 


ireni. 


IMPERFECT. 


FIRST FUTURE. 


Singular 






Singular. 




1st person. 
2nd „ 


issais. 
issais. 


1st person. 
2nd „ 


irai. 
iras. 


3rd „ 


issait. 


3rd 


}> 


ira. 


Plural. 






Plural. 




1st person. 
2nd „ 


issions. 
issiez. 


1st person. 
2nd „ 


irons. 
irez. 


3rd „ 


issaient. 

Condition 

FIRST CON 


3rd 

al Mode. 

DITIONAL. 


}> 


iront. 


Singular. 






Plural. 




1st person. 
2nd „ 


irais, 
irais. 


1st person. 
2nd „ 


irions. 
iriez. 


3rd ,3 


irait. 


3rd 


» 


indent. 



114 



A GRAMMAR OP THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



Subjunctive Mode. 



PRESENT Or FUTURE. 

Singular. 

1st person, isse. 

2nd „ isses. 

3rd „ isse. 

Plural. 
1st person, issions. 



2nd 
3rd 



isstez. 



IMPERFECT. 

Singular. 

1st person, isse. 

2nd „ isses, 

3rd „ it. 

Plural. 
1st person. 
2nd „ 
3rd „ 



Imperative Mode. 

2nd person singular, is. 
1st person plural. issons. 
2nd ,, issez. 



FINIR, To end, to finish. 

Indicative Mode. 



PRESENT. 



je finis, I end, I am ending. 

tu finis. 

il (elle, on) finit. 

nous finissons. 

vousfinissez. 

Us (elles) finissent. 

IMPERFECT. 

jefinissais, I ended, I was ending. 

tu finissais. 

il (elle, on) finissait. 

nous finissions. 

vous finissiez. 

Us (elles) finissaient. 

PRETERITE DEFINITE. 

je finis, I ended. 

tu finis. 

il (elle, on) finit. 

nous finimes. 

vous finites. 

Us (elles) finirent. 



PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 

j'aifini, I have ended. 

tu as fini. 

il (elle, on) afini. 

nous avonsfini. 

vous avezfini. 

Us (elles) ontfini. 

PRETERITE ANTERIOR OT PAULO-ANTE 
PLUPERFECT. 

feus fini, I had ended. 

tu eusfini. 

il (elle, on) eutfini. 

nous eumes fini. 

vous elites fini. 

Us (elles) eurentfini. 

PLUPERFECT. 

j'avaisfini, I had ended. 

tu avaisfini. 

il (elle, on) avaitfini. 

nous avions fini. 

vous aviezfini. 

Us (elles) avaientfini. 



SECOND CONJUGATION. 



HE 



FIRST FUTURE. 

jefinirai, I shall or will end. 

tufiniras. 

it (elle, on) finira, 

nous finirons. 

vous finirez. 

Us (elks) finiront. 



SECOND FUTURE. 

j'auraifini, I shall or will have 
ended. 
tu auras fini. 
il (elle, on) aura fini. 
nous auronsfini. 
vous aurezfini. 
Us (elles) auront fini. 



Conditional Mode. 



PRESENT, 

je finirais, I should or would end. 
tu finirais. 
I il (elle, on) finirait. 
nous finirions. 
vousfiniriez. 
Us (elles) finiraient. 

PAST. 

j^auraisfini, I should or would have 
ended. 
tu auraisfini. 
il (elle, on) auraitfini. 



nous aurions fini. 

vous auriezfini. 

Us (elles) auraient fini. 



Or, also, 
j'eussefini. 
tu eussesfini. 
il (elle, on) eut fini. 
nous eussions fini. 
vous eussiez fini. 
Us (elles) eussent fini. 



Impeeatiye Mode. 



2nd person singular. 
1st person plural. 
2nd 



fini, end, end thou, do thou end. • 

finissons, let us end. 

finissez, end, end you, do you end. 



Subjunctive Mode. 

PRESENT Or FUTURE. PERFECT. 



que je finisse, that I (may) end. 

que tufinisses. 

qu'il (quelle, qu'on) finisse. 

que nous finissions. 

que vous finissiez. 

qu'ils (qu'elles) finissent. 



IMPERFECT. 

que je finisse, that I ended, that I 
might end. 
que tufinisses. 
qu'il (quelle qu'on) finit. 
que nous finissions. 
que vous finissiez. 



qu'ils (qu'elles) finissent. 



que j'aie fini, that I (may) have 
ended. 
que tu aies fini. 
qu'il (qiCelle, qu'on) ait fini. 
que nous ayons fini. 
que vous ayezfini. 
qu'ils (qu'elles) aientfini. 

PLUPERFECT. 

que j'eusse fini, that I had ended, 
that I might have ended. 
que tu eussesfini. 
qu'il (qu'elle, qu'on) eut fini. 
que nous eussions fini. 
que vous eussiez fini. 
qu'ils (qu'elles) eussent fini. 



116 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



Infinitive Mode. 



PRESENT. 

finir, to end. 

PRESENT. 

rfnissant, euding. 



PAST. 

avoir fini, to have ended. 



Participles. 



PAST. 

fini (finie, finis, finies) ended. 



COMPOUND PAST. 

ayantfini, haviDg ended. 

Observations. 

I. The verb benir, in the sense of to bless, to praise, forms its 
participle past in the regular way (bent, benie) ; but in the 
sense of to consecrate (by a religious ceremony), it makes behit, 
benite in the participle past : de Veau benite, consecrated (holy) 
water ; du pain benit, consecrated bread. 

II. Hair, to hate, retains the diaeresis over the i throughout, 
except in the three persons singular present indicative (je hais, 
tu hais, il (elle, on) Jiaii), and in the second person singular of 
the imperative (hais). In the first and second person plural of 
the preterite definite (nous ha'imes, vous haites), and in the 
third person singular of the imperfect subjunctive (qu'il ha'it), 
the diaeresis replaces also the circumflex accent. 

III. Fleurir, in the figurative sense of to flourish, to be 
prosperous (said of an empire, of the arts, sciences, &c), makes 
in the participle present florissant, and in the third person 
singular and plural of the imperfect indicative florissait, floris- 
saient. 

IV. Irregular Verbs of the Second Conjugation. 

1. Dormir, mentir, partir, se repentir, sentir, servir, sortir, 
form the three persons singular of the present indicative, and 
the second person singular of the imperative by dropping the 
termination, and changing the characteristic respectively to s 
for the first and second person (and for the second person of 
the imperative), to t for the third person: * je dors, tu dors, il 
(elle, on) dort; dors, sleep, sleep thou ; je mens, &c. ; je pars, &c. ; 
je me repens, &c. ; je sens, &c. ; je sers, &c. ; je sors, &c. They 
drop the iss in the participle present, in the plural of the 

* This latter part of the rule applies only to dormir and servir, t being 
the characteristic of the other five verbs of this class, and do change being 
accordingly required in the third person. 



IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 117 

present indicative, in the present subjunctive, in the imperfect 
indicative, and in the first and second person plural of the 
imperative : dormant, instead of dormissant ; nous dormons, 
instead of dormissons ; vous mentez, instead of mentissez ; Us 
partent, instead of partissent ; quil se repente, instead of 
repentisse ; je sentais, instead of sentissais ; nous servions, 
instead of servissions ; sortons, sortez, instead of sortissons, 
sortissez. The other parts are regular. Vetir also is conjugated 
like dorrnir, &c, with the exception of the participle past, in 
which it makes vetu, instead of veti ; in the first an d second 
person singular indicative, and in the second person singular 
of the imperative, it retains the characteristic and adds s : je 
vets, tu vets ; vets. 

2. Acquerir drops the iss in the participle present, and in 
the imperfect indicative: acquerant, instead of acquerissant ; 
j'acquerais, instead of facquerissais. In the participle past it 
makes acquis, acquise ; in the present indicative, j' acquiers, tu 
acquiers, il (elle, on) acquiert, nous acquerons, vous acquerez, Us 
acquierent ; subjunctive, que facquiere, que tu acquieres, quit 
{quelle, quon) acquiere, que nous acquerions, que vous acqueriez, 
quails (qu'elles) acquierent ; in the preterite definite, f acquis, 
tu acquit, &c. ; in the imperfect subjunctive, que facquisse, &c. ; 
in the first future, f acquerrai, tu acquerras, &c. ; in the first- 
conditional, facquerrais, tu acquerrais, &c. ; in the imperative, 
acquiers, acquire, acquire thou ; acquerons, let us acquire ; 
acquerez, acquire you, do you acquire. S'enquerir, requerir, 
conquerir, are conjugated like acquerir. 

3. JBouillir drops the iss in the participle present, in the 
plural of the present indicative, in the present subjunctive, in 
the imperfect indicative, and in the first and second person 
plural of the imperative : bouillant, instead of bouillissant ; nous 
bouillons, instead of bouillissons ; que je bouille, instead of 
bouillisse ; je bouillais, instead of bouillissais ; bouillons, bouillez, 
instead of bouillissons, bouillissez. In the present singular 
indicative it makes je bous, tu bous, il (elle, on) bout ; in the 
second person singular of the imperative, bous. 

4. Oourir drops the iss in the participle present, in the plural 
of the present indicative, in the present subjunctive, in the 
first and second person plural of the imperative, and in the 
imperfect indicative. It makes in the singular of the present 
indicative,^ co'urs, tu cours, il court ; in the preterite definite, 
je courus, tu courus, il (elle, on) courut, nous courumes, vous 
courutes, Us (elles) coururent ; in the imperfect subjunctive, 
que je courusse, que tu courusses, &c. ; in the first future, je 



118 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

courrai, &c. ; in the first conditional, je courrais, &c. ; in the 
second person singular of the imperative, cours; in the participle 
past, couru. 

5. Oueillir drops the iss in the same parts as courir (see 4) ; 
it makes in the singular of the present, je cueille, tu cueilles, il 
{elle, on) cueille; in the second person singular of the imperative, 
cueille, cueilles ; * in the first future, je cueillerai, &c. ; in the 
first conditional,^ cueillerais, &c. (from the old verb cueiller). 

6. Faillir, to fail, drops the iss in the same parts as courir 
(see 4) . It makes in the singular of the present indicative, je 

faux, tu faux, il {elle, on) faut ; in the second person singular 
of the imperative, faux ; in the first future and first conditional 
(both obsolete) respectively, jefaudrai, &c.,jefaudrais, &c. 

7. JFuir make in the participle present, fuyant ; in the 
present indicative (regular), je fuis, tufuis, ilfuit (irregular), 
nous fuyons, vous fuyez, Us fuient ; present subjunctive, que je 

fuie, que tu fuies; quit fuie, que nous fuyions, que vous fuyiez, 
qu'ils fuient ; in the imperfect indicative, je fuyais, &c. ; in 
the imperative, fuis, fuyons, fuyez. The other parts are regular. 

8. Gesir, to lie, is a defective verb, used only in the participle 
present (gisant) ; in the third person singular, and in the plural 
of the present indicative (il git, ci git, here lies), nous gisons, 
vous gisez, Us gisent ; and in the imperfect of the indicative, je 
gisais, tu gisais, &c. 

9. Mourir makes in the participle present, mourant ; in the 
present indicative, je nieurs, tu meurs, il meurt, nous mourons, 
vous niourez, Us meurent ; present subjunctive, que je meure, 
que tu meures, qu'il meure, que nous mourions, que vous mouriez, 
quails meurent ; in the imperfect indicative, je mourais, &c. ; in 
the preterite definite, je mourus, &c. (see courir, 4) ; in the 
imperfect subjunctive, que je mourusse, &c. (see courir, 4) ; in 
the first future and first conditional respectively, je mourrai, &c, 
and je mourrais, &c. ; in the imperative, meurs, mourons, mourez ; 
in the participle past, mort, morte. 

10. Offrir and ouvrir drop the iss in the same parts as courir 
(see 4). They form the singular of the present indicative, 
and the second person singular of the imperative, the same way 
as cueillir : j'ofjre, tu cffres, il qffire ; offre (pffres *) ; j^ouvre, 
tu ouvres, il ouvre ; ouvre (ouvres*) ; in the participle past they 
make respectively offert, offerte, and ouvert, ouverte. The other 
parts are regular. Soufrir is conjugated like offrir. 

* The second person singular of the imperative of cueillir, assaillir, 
tresaillir, ouvrir, couvrir, offrir, souffrir, takes an s after the e before y 
and en. 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 



119 



11. Saillir, to project, is used only in the participles present 
and past, saillant, sailli, saillie ; and (as a unipersonal verb) in the 
following forms : il saille, il saillait, il saillera, il miller ait, qiCil 
saille, qu'il saillit. Saillir, to gush out, is regular, but mostly 
used only in the third person (singular and plural). Assaillir 
and tressaillir drop the iss in the same parts as courir (see 4). 
They make in the singular of the present indicative, and in the 
second person singular of the imperative respectively, j' assaille, 
tu assailles, il assaille — assaille {assailles *) ; je tressaille, tu 
tressailles, il tressaille — tressaille (tressailles*). Tressaillir 
makes in the first future and first conditional respectively, je 
tressaillerai, &c, zxAje tressaillerais, &c; the regular forms {tres- 
saillirai, tressaillir ais) are, however, also occasionally met with. 

12. Tenir makes in the participle present, tenant; in the 
present indicative, je tiens, iu tiens, il tient, nous tenons, vous 
tenez, Us tiennent ; present subjunctive, que je tienne, que tu 
tiennes, qu'il tienne, que nous tenions, que vous teniez, qu'ils 
tiennent ; in the imperfect indicative, je tenuis, &c. ; in the 
preterite definite, je tins, tu tins, il tint, nous tinmes, vous tintes, 
Us tinrent ; in the imperfect subjunctive, que je tinsse, que tu 
tinsses, qu'il tint, que nous tinssions, que votes tinssiez, qu'ils 
tinssent; in the first future and first conditional respectively, 
je tiendrai, &c, and je tiendrais, &c. ; in the imperative, tiens, 
tenons, tenez ; in the participle past, tenu. 

13. Venir is conjugated like tenir. 



C. Third Conjugation. 

The respective terminations of the third conjugation, are : — 

Infinitive present — oir, or rather, evoir.f 

Participle present — evant. 

Participle past — u, ue ; plural masculine, us; feminine, ues. 



Indicative Mode. 



PRESENT. 

Singular. 
1st person. ois. 
2nd „ ois. 

3rd „ oit. 

PluraL 
1st person. evons. 
2nd „ evez. 

3rd ,, oivent. 



IMPERFECT. 

Singular. 

1st person. evais. 

2nd „ evais. 

3rd „ evait. 

Plural. 
1st person. evions. 
2nd „ eviez. 

3rd „ evaient. 



* See footnote, page 118. 
f The verbs in oir not preceded by ev are all irregular. 



120 



A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



ERITE 


DEFINITE 


Or PERFECT. 




Singular 




1st person. 
2nd „ 


US. 

us. 


3rd 


Plural. 


ut. 


1st person. 
2nd „ 


umes. 

utes. 


3rd 


j> 


went. 



FIRST FUTURE. 
Singular. 



1st person. 
2nd „ 
3rd „ 

Plural. 
1st person. 
2nd „ 
3rd „ 



evrai. 
evras. 
evra. 

evrons. 

evrez. 

evront. 



Conditional Mode 

FIRST CONDITIONAL. 
Singular. 
1st person. evrais. 



2nd „ 


evrais. 


3rd „ 


evrait. 


sui 

PRESENT 0')' FUTURE. 


Singular 




1st person. 
2nd „ 


owe. 
oives. 


3rd „ 


oive. 


Plural. 




1st person, 
2nd „ 


evions. 
eviez. 


3rd „ 


oivent. 



Plural. 

1st person. evrions. 

2nd „ evriez. 

3rd ,, evraient. 



Subjunctive Mode. 



IMPERFECT. 
Singular. 
1st person. usse. 
2nd „ usses. 

3rd „ ut. 

Plural. 
1st person. ussions. 
2nd „ ussiez. 

3rd „ ussent. 



Imperative Mode. 

2nd person singular, ois. 
1st person plural. evons. 
2nd ,, evez. 



RECEYOIR* To receive. 
Indicative Mode. 



PRESENT. 

je repois, I receive, I am receiving. 

tu recois. 

il (elle, on) repoit. 

nous recevons. 

vous recevez. 

Us (elles) repoxvent. 



IMPERFECT. 

je recevais, I received, I was receiving 

tu recevais. 

il (elle, on) recevait. 

nous recevions. 

vous receviez. 

Us (elks) recevaient. 



* Observe, that by joining the ev to the termination oir, as we have done 
here, the characteristic of the verb is shifted; the characteristic here is c f 
not v. 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 



121 



PRETERITE DEFINITE. 

je repus, I received. 

tu repus. 

il (elle, on) recut. 

nous resumes. 

vous reputes. 

its (elles) repurent. 

PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 

j'ai repu, I have received. 

tu as repu. 

il (elle, on) a repu, 

nous avons repu. 

vous avez repu. 

ils (elles) out repu. 

PRETERITE ANTERIOR Or PAULO-ANTE 
PLUPERFECT. 

j*eus repu, I had received. 

tu eus repu. 

il (elle, on) eut repu. 

nous euraes repu. 

vous eutes repu. 

ils (elles) eurent repu. 



PLUPERFECT. 

j' 'avals repu, I had received. 

tu avals repu. 

il (elle, on) avalt repu. 

nous avions repu. 

vous avlez repu. 

lis (elles) avalent repu. 

FIRST FUTURE. 

je recevral, I shall or will receive. 

tu recevras. 

II (elle, on) recevra. 

nous recevrons. 

vous recevrez. 

Us (elles) recevront. 

SECOND FUTURE. 

j' aural repu, I shall or will have 
received. 
tu auras repu. 
II (elle, on) aura repu. 
nous aurons repu. 
vous aurez repu. 
lis (elles) auront repu. 



Conditional Mode. 



PRESENT W FIRST CONDITIONAL. 

je recevrais, I should or would receive. 

tu recevrais. 

II (elle, on) recevralt. 

nous recevrlons. 

vous recevrlez. 

ils (elles) recevralent. 

PAST Or SECOND CONDITIONAL. 

j'aurals repu, I should or would 
have received. 
tu aurals repu. 
il (elle, on) auralt repu. 



nous amnions repu. 

vous aurlez repu. 

ils (elles) auralent repu. 



Or, also, 

j'eusse repu. 

tu eusses repu. 

II (elle, on) eut repu. 

nous eusslons repu. 

vous eusslez repu. 

Us (elles) eussent repu. 



Impebatiye Mode. 



2nd person singular. 
1st person plural. 
2nd 



repois, receive, receive thou. 
recevons, let us receive. 
recevez, receive, receive you. 



122 



A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



Subjunctive Mode. 



PRESENT Or FUTURE. 

que je regoive, that I (may) receive. 

que tu regoives. 

qu'il (qu'elle, qu'on) regoive. 

que nous recevions. 

que vous receviez. 

qu'ils (qu'elles) regoivent. 



IMPERFECT. 

que je regusse, that I received, that I 
might receive. 
que tu regusses. 
qu'il (qu'elle, qu'on) regut. 
que nous regussions. 
que vous regussiez. 
qu'ils (qu'elles) regussent. 



PERFECT. 

que j'aie regu, that I (may) have 
received. 
que tu aies regu. 
qu'il (qu'elle, qu'on) ait regu. 
que nous ayons regu. 
que vous ayez regu. 
qu'ils {qu'elles) aient regu. 

PLUPERFECT. 

que j'eusse regu, that I had received, 
that I might have received. 
que tu eusses regu. 
quit (qu'elle, qu'on) eut regu. 
que nous eussions regu. 
que vous eussiez regu. 
qu'ils (qu'elles) eussent regu. 



Infinitive Mode. 



PRESENT. 

recevoir, to receive. 



PAST. 

avoir regit,, to have received. 



Participles. 



PRESENT. 

recevant, receiving. 



PAST. 

regu (regue, regus, regues) received. 



COMPOUND PAST. 

ayant regu, having received. 



Observations. 

I. The small group of verbs that figures as the third conju- 
gation, numbers only the following seven : devoir, redevoir, 
apercevoir, concevoir, decevoir, percevoir, recevoir. 

II. By including the letters ev in the termination, the root 
of devoir is reduced to a single letter (d), to which the respective 
terminations of the various modes, tenses, &c, are added : 
d-evoir, je d-ois, nous d-umes, il d-evra, &c. The participle past 
of devoir and redevoir, take an accent circumflex on the u in the 
masculine singular : du, redu. 

III. By including the letters ev in the termination, the letter 
c becomes the characteristic of apercevoir, concevoir, decevoir, 
percevoir, and recevoir ; this letter is marked with a cedilla 
before o and u : je percois ; concu. 



THIRD CONJUGATION — IRREGULAR VERBS. 123 



IV. Irregular Verts in oir. 

1. Choir, to fall, is a defective verb ; the participle past (chu, 
chue) is the only part which is still occasionally met with. 

2. Dechoir, to decay, to fall off, lacks the participle present 
and the imperfect indicative ; it makes in the present indicative, 
je deeliois, tu dechois, il dechoit, nous dechoyons, vous dechoyez, 
Us dechoient ; present subjunctive, que je dechoie, que tu dechoies, 
qu'il dechoie, que nous dechoyions, que vous dechoyiez, qu'ils 
dechoient ; in the preterite definite, je dechus, &c. (like recus) ; 
in the imperfect subjunctive, que je dechusse, &c. (like que je 
recusse) ; in the first future and first conditional respectively, 
je decherrai, &c, and je decherrais, &c. ; in the imperative, 
dechois, decJioyons, dechoyez; in the participle past, dechu, dechue. 

3. JSchoir, to fall out, to expire, to happen, to fall to the 
possession of, makes in the participle present, eclieant ; in the 
participle past, e'cliu, echue ; the only other parts in use are : 
the third person singular and plural present indicative (il 
echoit, or il echet ; Us echeient, or Us echeent) ; the third person 
singular of the imperfect indicative, and of the preterite definite 
(il echoyait, il echut) ; the third person singular of the present 
subjunctive, and of the imperfect subjunctive (qyHil echoie, qu'il 
eehut) ; the third person singular of the first future and of the 
first conditional (il echerra, il echerraif). 

4. .Falloir, to be needful, to be necessary (to must), is a 
unipersonal verb ; it lacks the participle present. 

Participle YAsn—fallu. 

Indicative Mode. 

Present— il faut. Imperfect — il fallait. 

Preterite definite — ilfallut. First future — il faudra. 

Conditional Mode. 

First conditional — il faudrait. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Present or Future — qyCil faille. Imperfect — qvJil fattut. 

5. Mouvoir, to move, makes in the participle present, mouvant; 
in the participle past, mu ; in the present indicative, je meus, 
tu meus, il meut, notes mouvons, vous mouvez, Us meuvent ; 
present subjunctive, que je nieuve, que tu nieuves, qiCil meuve, 
que nous mouvions, que vous mouviez, qu'ils meuvent ; imperfect 

g2 



124 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

indicative, je mouvais, &c. ; preterite definite, je mus, &c. (like 
regus) : imperfect subjunctive, que je musse, &c. (like que je 
regusse) ; first future, je mouvrai, &c. ; first conditional, je 
mouvrais, &c. ; imperative, mens, mouvons, mouvez. 

6. Pleuvoir, to ,rain, is a unipersonal verb ; it makes in the 
participle present, pleuvant ; participle past, plu ; present 
indicative, il pleut ; subjunctive, quit pleuve ; imperfect indica- 
tive, il pleuvait ; preterite definite, il plut ; imperfect sub- 
junctive, quilplut; first future, il pleuvra ; first conditional, 
il pleuvrait. 

7. JBourvoir, to provide, makes in the participle present, 
pourvoyant ; participle past, pourvu ; present indicative, je 
pourvois, tu pourvois, il pourvoit, nous pourvoyons, vous pour- 
voyez, Us pourvoient ; present subjunctive, que je pourvoie, que 
tu pourvoies, quil pourvoie, que nous pourvoyions, que vous 
pourvoyiez, qu'ils pourvoient ; imperfect indicative, je pourvoyais, 
&c. ; preterite definite, je pourvus, &c. (like regus) ; imperfect 
subjunctive, que je pourvusse, &c. (like regusse) ; first future, 
je pourvoirai, &c. ; first conditional, je pourvoirais, &c. ; impera- 
tive, pourvois, pourvoyons, pourvoyez. 

8. JPouvoir, to be able (to can), makes in the participle 
present, pouvant ; participle past, pu ; present indicative, je 
peux, or je puis (interrogatively the latter form is used 
exclusively), tu peux, il peut, nous pouvons, vous pouvez, Us 
peuvent ; present subjunctive, que je puisse, &c. ; imperfect, 
indicative, je pouvais, &c. ; preterite definite, je pus, &c. (like 
regus) ; imperfect subjunctive, que je pusse, &c. (like regusse) : 
first future, je pourrai, tu pourras, &c. ; first conditional, je 
pourrais, tu pourrais, &c. JPouvoir has, of course, no impera- 
tive, but it has an optative : puisse-je, would I might, would I 
could, oh, that I could ; puisses-tu, puisse-t-il, puissions-nous, 
p uissiez-vous, puissent-ils. 

9. Savoir, to know, makes in the participle present, sacliant ; 
participle past su ; present indicative, je sais, tu sais, il sait, 
nous savons, vous savez, Us savent ; present subjunctive, que je 
sache, &c. ; imperfect indicative, je savais, &c. ; preterite definite, 
je sus, &c. (like regus) ; imperfect subjunctive, que je susse, &c. 

(like regusse) ; first future, je saurai, tu sauras, &c. ; first 
conditional, je saurais, tu saurais, &c. ; imperative, sache, 
saclions, sachez. 

10. a Seoir, to become, to befit, to fit, is used only in the 
participle present, seyant ; and in the third person -singular 
and plural of the present indicative, il sied, Us sieent ; third 
person of the present subjunctive, qu'il siee — rarely used ; 



THIRD CONJUGATION — IRREGULAR VERBS. 125 

third person singular of the imperfect indicative, il seyait : 
third person singular of the first future and first conditional il 
siera, il sierait. b Seoir, to sit, is used in the participle 
present and participle past, seant, sis. c Asseoir, to set, to 
fix, makes in the participle present, asseyant (and also assoyant) ; 
participle past, assis, assise: present indicative, j'assieds, tu 
assiedsj il assied, nous asseyons, vous asseyez, Us asseient (and 
also j' assois, tu assois, il assoit, nous assoyons, vous assoyez, Us 
assoient) ; present subjunctive, que j'asseie, que tu asseies, qu'il 
asseie, que nous asseyions, que vous asseyiez, quails asseient (and 
also que J'assoie, que tu assoies, &c.) ; imperfect indicative, 
j'asseyais, &c. (and also j'assoyais, &c.) ; preterite definite, 
y assis, &c. (like finis, preterite definite oifinir); imperfect 
subjunctive que j"* assisse, &c. (like finisse, imperfect subjunctive 
of finir) ; first future, j'assie'rai, tu assieras, &c. (and also 
y asseyerai, tu asseyeras, &c. ; j'assoirai, tu assoiras, &c.) ; first 
conditional, jassierais, tu assierais, &c. (and also j'asseyerais, &c, 
j' assoirais, &c.) ; imperative, assieds {assois), asseyons (assoyons), 
asseyez (assoyez). Asseoir is more frequently employed as a 
pronominal verb (i asseoir), in the sense of to sit down : je 
n£ assieds, tu fassieds, il s'assied, &c. (The forms je on' assois, 
queje m'assoie,je nCassoyais,je m' "assoirai, je rrC assoirais, assois- 
toi, assoyons-nous, assoyez-vous, are hardly ever met with.) 
d Surseoir, to put off, to supersede, makes in the participle past 
sursis ; and in the first future and first conditional respectively, 
je surseoirai, tu surseoiras, &c. ; je surseoirais, tu surseoirais, &c. 
In all other respects it is conjugated like voir (see 12). 

11. Valoir, to be worth, makes in the participle present, 
valant ; participle past valu, value ; present indicative, je 
vaux, tu vaux, il vaut, nous valons, vous valez, Us valent ; present 
subjunctive, que je vaille, que tu vailles, qu'il vaille, que nous 
valions, que vous valiez, qu'ils vaillent ; imperfect indicative, je 
valais, &c. ; preterite definite, je valus, &c. (like recus) ; imper- 
fect subjunctive, que je valusse, &c. (like recusse) ; first future, 
je vaudrai, tu vaudras, &c. ; first conditional, je vaudrais, tu 
vaudrais, &c. Valoir has no imperative.* The compounds of 
valoir are conjugated the same way ; prevaloir, however makes 
in the present subjunctive, que je prevale, que tu prevales, qu'il 
prevale, que nous prevalions, que vous prevaliez, qu'ils 'prevalent 
— instead of prevaille, es, e, ent. 

12. Voir, to see, makes in the participle present, voyant ; 
participle past, vu, vice ; present indicative, je vois, tu vols, il 

* Some grammarians assign to valoir an imperative mode : vaux, valon% 

valez. 



126 



A GRAMMAR, OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



voit, nous voyons, vous voyez, Us voient ; present subjunctive, 
que je voie, que tu voie, quil voie, que nous voyions, que vous 
voyiez, qu'ils voient; imperfect indicative, je voyais, &c. ; pre- 
terite definite, je vis, &c. (like je finis — preterite definite of 
finir) ; imperfect subjunctive, que je visse, &c. (like que je 
finisse — imperfect subjunctive of finir) ; first future, je verrai, 
tu verras, &c. ; first conditional, je vermis, tu verrais, &c. ; 
imperative, vois, voyons, voyez. The compounds of voir (with 
the exception of pourvoir — see 7.), are conjugated the same 
way ; prevoir, however, makes in the first future and first 
conditional respectively, je prevoirai, &c, and je prevoirais, &c, 
instead of preverrai, preverrais. 

13. Vouloir, to be willing (to will), makes in the participle 
present, voulant ; participle past, voulu, voulue ; present indica- 
tive, je veux, tu veux, il veut, nous voulons, vous voulez, Us 
veulent ; present subjunctive, que je veuille, que tu veuilles, 
qytil veuille, que nous voulions, que vous vouliez, quits veuillent; 
imperfect indicative, je voulais, &c. ; preterite definite, je 
voulus, &c. (like je recus) ; imperfect subjunctive, que je 
voulusse, &c. (like que je recusse) ; first future, je voudrai, tu 
voudras, &c. ; first conditional, je voudrais, tu voudrais, &c. 
Vouloir has no imperative ; still the forms veuille, veuillons, 
veuillez, are sometimes met with ; more particularly the latter, 
in the sense of he so good, have the kindness, please. 



D. Fourth Conjugation. 

The respective terminations of the fourth conjugation, are — 
Infinitive present — re. 
Participle present — ant. 

Participle past- — u (feminine, ue ; plural masculine, us; 
feminine, ices). 



Indicative Mode. 



PRESENT. 




IMPERFECT 




Singular. 
1st person. 
2nd ., 
3rd „ 


s. 
s. 
t. 


Singular. 
1st person. 
2nd „ 
3rd „ 


ais. 
ais. 
ait. 


Plural. 




Plural. 




1st person. 
2nd „ 
3rd „ 


ons. 

ez. 

ent. 


1st person. 
2nd „ 
3rd „ 


ions. 

iez. 

aient. 



FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



127 



PRETERITE DEFINITE 


Or PERFECT. 


FIRST FUTURE. 


Singular. 
1st person. 
2nd „ 
3rd „ 


is. 
is. 
it. 


Singular. 
1st person. rai. 
2nd „ ras. 
3rd „ ra. 


Plural. 




Plural. 


1st person. 
2nd „ 
3rd „ 


imes. 

ites. 

irent. 


1st person. rons. 
2nd „ rez. 
3rd „ ront. 



Singular. 
1st person. 
2nd „ 
3rd „ 



Conditional Mode. 



FIRST CONDITIONAL. 



rais. 
rais. 

rait. 



Plural 
1st person. 
2nd „ 
3rd „ 



mons. 

riez. 

raient. 



Subjunctive Mode. 



PRESENT Or FUTURE. 

Singular. 

1st person. e. 

2nd „ es. 

3rd „ e. 

Plural. 

1st person. ions. 

2nd „ iez. 

3rd ,, ent. 



IMPERFECT. 
Singular. 
1st person. 
2nd „ 
3rd „ 

Plural. 
1st person. 
2nd „ 
3rd „ 



isse. 
isses. 
it. 

issions. 

issiez. 

issent. 



Impebatiye Mode. 

2nd person singular. s. 
1st person plural. ons. 

2nd ,, ez. 



RENDRE, To render, to restore, to deliver. 
Indicative Mode. 

IMPERFECT. 

je rendais, I rendered, I was rendering. 

tu rendais. 

il {die, on) rendait. 

nous rendions. 

vous rendiez. 

ils (elles) rendaient. 



PRESENT. 

je rends, I render, I am rendering. 

tu rends. 

il (elle, on) rend (not rendt, see Obs. I.) 

nous rendons. 

vous rendez. 

ils (elles) rendenU 



128 



A GRAMMAR 0E THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



PRETERITE DEFINITE. 

je rendis, I rendered. 

tu rendis. 

il {die, on) rendit. 

nous rendimes. 

vous rendites. 

Us (elks) rendlrent. 

PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 

j'ai rendu, I have rendered. 

tu as rendu. 

il (elle, on) a rendu. 

nous avons rendu. 

vous avez rendu. 

Us (elles) ont rendu. 

PRETERITE ANTERIOR, Or PAULO-ANTE 
PLUPERFECT. 

j'eus rendu, I had rendered. 

tu eus rendu. 

il (elle, on) eut rendu. 

nous eumes rendu. 

vous elites rendu. 

Us (elles) eurent rendu. 



PLUPERFECT. 

j 'avals rendu, I had rendered. 

tu avals rendu. 

il (elle, on) avait rendu. 

nous avlons rendu. 

vous avlez rendu. 

Us (elles) avaient rendu. 

FIRST .FUTURE. 

je rendrai, I shall or will render. 

tu rendras. 

il (elle, on) rendra. 

nous rendrons. 

vous rendrez. 

Us (elles) rendront. 

SECOND FUTURE. 

j' aural rendu, I shall or will have 
rendered. 
tu auras rendu. 
II (elle, on) aura rendu, 
nous aurons rendu, 
vous aurez rendu. 
Us (elles) auront rendu. 



Conditional Mode. 



PRESENT Or FIRST CONDITIONAL. 

je rendrais, I should or would render. 

tu rendrais. 

il (elle, on) rendralt. 

nous rendrlons. 

vous rendrlez. 

Us (elles) rendralent. 

PAST Or SECOND CONDITIONAL. 

faurals rendu, I should or would 
have rendered. 
tu aurals rendu, 
il (elle, on) auralt rendu. 



nous aurlons rendu. 

vous aurlez rendu. 

Us (elles) auralent rendu. 



Or, also, 

j'eusse rendu. 

tu eusses rendu. 

il (elle, on) eut rendu. 

nous eusslons rendu. 

vous eussiez rendu. 

Us (elles) eussent rendu. 



Imperative Mode. 



2nd person singular. 
1st person plural. 
2nd 



rends, render, render thou, do thou render. 

rendons, let us render. 

rendez, render you, do you render. 



FOURTH CONJUGATION — IRREGULAR VERBS. 



129 



Subjunctive Mode. 



PRESENT Or FUTURE. 

queje rende, that I (may) render. 

que tu rendes. 

quil (qiCelle, qvJori) rende. 

que nous rendions. 

que vous rendiez. 

qiCils (qu'elles) rendent. 



IMPERFECT. 

queje rendisse, that I rendered, that 
I might render. 
que tu rendisses. 
qu'il (quelle, qu'on) rendit. 
que nous rendissions. 
que vous rendissiez. 
qu'ils (quelles) rendissent. 



PERFECT. 

que j'aie rendu, that I 



(may) have 
rendered. 



que tu axes rendu. 
quil (quelle, qu'on) ait r 
que nous ayons rendu. 
que vous ayez rendu, 
qu'ils (qu'elles) aunt rendu, 



PLUPERFECT. 

quej'eusse rendu, that I had rendered, 
that I might have rendered. 
que tu eusses rendu, 
quil (quelle, qu'on) eut rendu. 
que nous eussions rendu, 
que vous eussiez rendu. 
qiCils (qu'elles) eussent rendu. 



Ineinitite Mode. 



PRESENT. 

rendre, to render. 



PAST. 

avoir rendu, to have rendered. 



Participles. 



PRESENT. 

rendant, rendering. 



rendu (vendue, rendus, rendues), 
rendered. 



COMPOUND PAST. 

ayant rendu, having rendered. 



Observations. 

I. The verbs in dre reject the termination t in the third 
person singular present indicative : il vend, instead of vendt ; il 
onord, instead of onordt, &c. 

II. The verbs in ttre reject one of the two fs in the singular 
of the present indicative, and of the imperative ; in the third 
person singular of the present indicative the t of the termina- 
tion likewise is rejected : battre — -je hats, tu bats, il bat ; bats. 

III. Irregular Verbs. 

1. The verbs in aitre and oitre retain the accent circumflex 
over the i in the third person singular present indicative, and 
throughout the first future and first conditional: paraitre ; il 

g3 



130 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

para\t ; je paraitrai, &c. ; je paraitrais, &c. Tbese veibs drop 
the characteristic (t) in the three persons singular present 
indicative, and in the imperative singular: je parais, tu parais, 
il par ait, — parais ; they change the characteristic to ss in the 
participle present ; in the three persons plural of the present 
indicative ; in the present subjunctive ; in the imperfect indica- 
tive • and in the plural of the imperative : paraissant, nous 
paraissojis, vous paraissez, Us paraissent ; que je paraisse, &c. ; 
je parahmis, &c. ; paraissons, parai&sez. The participle past, 
preterite definite, and imperfect subjunctive, are formed by 
changing aitre or oitre respectively, to u, us, usse: paru (parue) ; 
je pans, &c. ; que je parusse, &c. ; instead of paraitu, paraitis, 
paraitisse ; cru* (crue),je crus* &c, que je crusse, &c, instead 
of croitu, croitis, croitisse. 

In the first future and first conditional, the characteristic 
is retained unaltered : je paraitrai, &c. ; je croitrai, &c. ; je 
paraitrais, &c. ; je croitrais, &c. 

. Notes. — a. The verb naitre makes in the participle past ne (nee) ; in 
the preterite definite, je naquis, &c. (like je rendis) ; in the imperfect sub- 
junctive, que je naquisse, &c. (like que je rendisse). Renaitre, to be born 
again, has no participle past, and accordingly no compound tenses either. 

b. The verb paitre, to graze, lacks the preterite definite and the imper- 
fect subjunctive ; but repaitre, to feed, to bait, has all its tenses complete, 
making in the preterite definite je repus, &c, and in the imperfect subjunc- 
tive, que je repusse, &c. 

2. The verbs in indre (aindre, eindre, oindre) change nd to 
gn, in the participle present ; in the plural of the present 
indicative ; in the present subjunctive ; in the imperfect indica- 
tive; in the preterite definite; in the imperfect subjunctive; and 
in the imperative plural: johiire, joignant ; nous joignons, vous 
joignez, its joignent ; que je joigne, &c. ; je joignais, &c. ; que je 
joignisse, &c. ; joignons, joignez. The first and second person 
singular present indicative, and the imperative singular, are 
formed by changing the characteristic (d) to s : je joins, tu 
joins ; joins ; the third person singular present indicative, by 
changing the characteristic to t : il joint ; the participle past, 
likewise, by changing the characteristic to t: joint (jointe). 
In the first future and first conditional, the characteristic is 
retained unaltered : je joindrai, &c. ; je joinirais, &c. 

Note. — Of the verb poindre, to dawn, to peep, to sting, to pierce, the 
only parts used, besides the infinitive, are the present and future, and even 
those only in the third person singular: il point, il poindra. 



* The circumflex accent serves here to distinguish the participle past 
and preterite definite of croitre from the participle past and preterite definite 
of croire. 



FOURTH CONJUGATION — IRREGULAR VERBS. 131 

8. The verbs in aire insert an s in the participle present, 
between the characteristic (ai) and the termination (ant) : 
plaire, plaisant ; the same insertion is made also in the parts 
derived from the participle present, viz., in the plural of the 
present indicative : nous plaisons, vous plaisez, Us plaisent ; in 
the present subjunctive, que je plaise, &c. ; in the imperfect 
indicative, je plaisais, &c. ; and in the imperative plural, 
plaisons, plaisez. The participle past, preterite definite, and 
imperfect subjunctive, are formed by changing aire respectively 
to u, us, usse : plu,je plus, que je plusse, instead of plaiu, plaiis, 
plaiisse. The three persons singular present indicative ; the 
imperative singular ; and the first future and first conditional, 
are formed regularly: je plais, tu plais, il plait; plais ; je 
plairai, &c. ; je plairais, &c. 

Notes. — a. The participle past of taire (tu) is usually marked with a 
circumflex over the u, in the masculine singular : til (feminine, tue ; plural 
masculine, tus ; feminine, tues.) 

b. Faire, to make, to do, and its compounds (contrefaire, defaire, &c), 
make in the participle past, fait (faite), contrefait (contrefait e), &c. ; in 
the second and third person plural present indicative, faites, font ; contre- 
faites, contrefont, &c. ; in the second person plural of the imperative, faites, 
contrefaites, &c. ; in the present subjunctive, que je fasse, &c, que je con- 
trefasse, &c. ; in the preterite definite, je fis, &c, je contrefs, &c. ; in the 
imperfect subjunctive, quejefisse, &c, que je contrefsse, &c. In the future 
and conditional, they change the characteristic (ai) to e : je ferai, ferais, — 
contreferai, contreferais, &c, instead of fairai, &c. In the other parts they 
are conjugated like plaire. Forfaire, maifaive, mefaire, paifaire, are used 
only in the infinitive, and in the participle past : forfait, malfait, mefait, 
parfait. 

c. Braire, to bray, is used only in the third person singular and plural 
of the present indicative, first future and first conditional: il brait, Us 
braient ; il braira, Us brairont ; Ubrairait, Us brairaient. 

d. Traire, to milk, makes in the participle present, trayant ; participle 
past, trait; in the plural present indicative, nous trayons, vous trayez, Us 
traient ; present subjunctive, que je traye, &c. ; imperative plural, trayons, 
trayez ; imperfect indicative, je trayais, &c. It lacks the preterite definite, 
and imperfect subjunctive. In the singular of the present indicative, 
imperative singular, first future and first conditional, it is conj ugated like 
plaire. Attraire, abstraire, distraire, extraire, rentraire, retraire, soustraire, 
are conjugated like traire. 

4. The verbs in uire, insert an s between the characteristic 
(j) and the termination, in the participle present : reduire, 
re'duhant ; in the plural of the present indicative, nous 
reduisons, vous reduisez, Us reduhent ; in the present subjunc- 
tive, que je reduise, &c. ; in the imperfect indicative, je reduhais, 
&c. ; in the preterite definite, je redimis, &c. ; in the imperfect 
subjunctive, que je reduisisse, &c. ; in the imperative plural, 
reduiwns, reduisez. The participle past is formed in t : reduit 



132 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

(reduite). The singular of the present indicative ; the impera- 
tive singular ; and the first future and first conditional, are 
regular : je reduis, &c; reduis; je reduirai, &c; je reduirais, &c. 

Notes. — a. Bruire, to roar, is a defective verb, having only the participle 
present (bruyant), and the third person singular and plural of the imper- 
fect indicative (il bruyait, Us bruyaient). 

b. Luire (to shine) and reluire (to glitter) make in the participle past lui, 
relui ; they lack the preterite definite and the imperfect subjunctive. In 
all other parts they are conjugated like rSduire. 

c. Nuire, to hurt, makes in the participle past nui. In all other parts 
it is conjugated like reduire. 

5. a. Verbs in ire. — Confire, to pickle, makes in the participle 
present, confimnt ; participle past, con/It (confite) : plural pre- 
sent indicative, nous confisons, vous confi&ez, Us confident; 
present subjunctive, que je confine, &c. ; imperfect indicative, je 
cofifisais, &c. ; preterite definite, je confis, &c. ; imperfect sub- 
junctive, que je confisse, &c. ; imperative plural, confisons, con- 
Jisez. The singular of the present indicative, the imperative 
singular, and the first future and first conditional, are regular : 
je confis, &c. ; confis ; je confirm, &c. ; je confirms, &c. 

b. Circoncire, to circumcise, makes in the participle past, 
circoncis (circoncise) ; suffire makes suffi. In the other parts 
these two verbs are conjugated like confire. 

c. Dire, to say, makes in the second person plural of the 
present indicative, and of the imperative, vous dites ; dites ; 
in the participle past, dit (dite). The other parts are con- 
jugated like confire. Bedire is conjugated like dire. 

Note. — Dedire, contredire, intredire, medire, predire, make in the second 
person plural of the present indicative, and of the imperative, vous dedisez, 
contredisez, interdisez, medisez, predisez; dedisez, &c. ; in the other parts they 
are conjugated like dire. Maudire makes in the participle present mau- 
dissant ; in the plural of the present indicative, nous maudissons, vous 
maudissez, Us maudissent ; in the imperative plural, maudissons, maudissez ; 
in the present subjunctive, que je maudisse, &c. In the other parts it is 
conjugated like dire. 

d. Lire, to read, makes in the participle past, lu (lue) ; in 
the preterite definite, je lus, &c. ; in the imperfect subjunctive, 
que je lusse, &c. In the other parts it is conjugated like 
confire. 

e. Frire, to fry, makes in the participle past, frit (frite) ; it 
lacks the participle present, the plural of the present indicative, 
the present subjunctive, the imperfect indicative, the preterite 
definite, the imperfect subjunctive, and the imperative plural. 
These deficiencies are readily supplied, however, by the corre- 
sponding tenses, &c, of the Yerbfaire, followed by the infinitive 



jPOURTH CONJUGATION — IRREGULAR, VERBS. 133 

frire : faisant frire, je faisais frire, &c. The singular of the 
present indicative, and the first future and first conditional of 
frire, ,are conjugated like con/Ire. 

f. Ecrire, to write, inserts a v between the characteristic and 
the termination in the participle present, ecrivant ; in the 
plural of the present indicative, nous ecrivons, vous ecrivez, Us 
ecrivent ; in the present subjunctive, que j'ecrive, &c. ; in the 
imperfect indicative, j'e'crivais, &c. ; in the preterite definite, 
j'ecrivis, &c. ; in the imperfect subjunctive, quej'ecrivisse, &c. ; 
in the imperative plural, ecrivons, e'crivez. The singular of the 
present indicative, and of the imperative, and the first future 
and first conditional, are formed regularly : j'e'cris, &c. ; ecris ; 
j'ecrirai, &c. ; j'ecrirais, &c. The participle past of ecrire is 
ecrit (ecrit e). The compounds of ecrire (circonscrire, decrire, 
&c.) are conjugated in the same way. I 

g. Hire, to laugh, makes in the participle past, ri ; in the 
preterite indicative, je ris, &c. ; in the imperfect subjunctive, 
que je risse, &c. The other parts are formed regularly : ri-ant, 
je ri-s, tu ri-s, &c. ; que je ri-e, &c. ; je ri-ais, &c. ; je ri-rai, &c; 
je ri-rais, &c. ; ris, ri-ons, ri~ez. 

Sourire, to smile, is conjugated like rire. 

6. a. Absoudre, to absolve, makes in the participle present, 
dbsolvant ; in the participle past, absous (absoute) ; in the 
present indicative, j' absous, tu absous, il absout, nous dbsolvons, 
vous absolvez, Us absolvent; in the present subjunctive, que 
j' absolve, &c. ; in the imperfect indicative, j'absolvais, &c. — 
(absoudre has no preterite definite, nor imperfect subjunctive) ; 
in the imperative, absous, absolvons, absolvez. The first future 
and first conditional are formed regularly: j'absoudrai, &c, 
j 1 absoudrais, &c. 

b. Dissoudre, to dissolve, is conjugated the same way, and 
lacks the same tenses, as absoudre. 

c. Hesoudre, to resolve, is conjugated like absoudre, but has 
all its tenses complete ; the participle past, resous (no feminine), 
is used only in the sense of resolved into, or turned into. When 
employed in the sense of to determine, to fix on, resoudre makes 
in the participle past resolu (resolue). The preterite definite 
of resoudre, is je resolus, &c. ; the imperfect subjunctive, que je 
resolusse, &c. 

7. Boire, to drink, makes in the participle present, buvant ; 
participle past, bu (bue) ; plural present indicative, nous buvons, 
vous buvez, Us boivent ; present subjunctive, que je boive, que 
tu boives, qiiil boive, que nous buvions, que vous buviez, quails 
boivent; imperfect indicative, je buvais, &c. ; preterite definite, 



134 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

je bus, &c. ; imperfect subjunctive, que je busse, &c. ; imperative, 
bois, buvons, buvez. The first future and first conditional are 
formed regularly : je boirai, &c, je boirais, &c. 

8. a. Clove (clorre), to close, is a defective verb, Having, 
beside the infinitive, only the participle past, clos ; the singular 
of the present indicative, je clos, tu clos, il clot ; the imperative 
singular, clos ; and the first future and first conditional, je 
clorai, &c.,je clorais, &c. 

b. Declore, to disclose, to open ; and enclore, to enclose, are 
conjugated the same way, and lack the same parts as clore. 

c. For clore, to debar, to foreclose (law-term), has, besides 
the infinitive, only the participle past, forclos. 

d. JEclore, to be hatched, to blow (of flowers), is used only 
in the infinitive, in the participle past, eclos {eclose) ; and in 
the third person singular and plural of the present indicative 
and subjunctive, il eclot, Us eclosent, qu'il eclose, quails eclosent; 
and of the first future and first conditional, il eclora, Us ecloront, 
il eclorait, Us ecloraient. The compound tenses of eclore are 
formed with etre. 

9. a. Conclure, to conclude, makes in the participle past, 
conclu (conclue) ; in the preterite definite, je conclus, &c. ; in 
the imperfect subjunctive, que je conclusse, &c. The other 
parts are formed regularly : conclu-ant, je conelu-s, &c. ; que je 
conclu-e, &c; je conclu-ais, &c; je conclu-rai, &c; je conclu-rais, 
&c; conclu-s, conclu-ons, conclu-ez. 

b. Eocclure, to exclude, is conjugated like conclure-, it has, 
however, a double participle past: exclu {eocclue), and exclus 
(excluse). 

10. Coudre, to sew (see I.), changes the characteristic (d) 
to s in the participle present, cousant ; participle past, cousu, 
cousue ; plural of the present indicative, nous coupons, &c. ; 
present subjunctive, que je couse, &c. ; imperfect indicative, 
je cousais, &c. ; preterite definite, je cousis, &c. ; imperfect 
subjunctive, que je coulisse, &c. ; imperative plural, coupons, 
cousez. It retains the characteristic unaltered, in the singular 
present indicative and imperative, je cou&s, tu couds, il coud — 
couis ; and in the first future and first conditional, je coudrai, 
&c.,je coudrais, &c. 

11. Croire, to believe, changes the characteristic (i) to y, in 
the participle present, crojant ; in the first and second person 
plural of the present indicative and subjunctive, and of the 
imperative, nous croyons, vous croyez, que nous croyions, que 
vous croyiez, — croyons, croyez ; and in the imperfect indicative, 
je croyais, &c. It makes in the participle past, cru (crue) ; in 



FOUETH CONJUGATION IRREGULAR VERBS. 135 

the preterite definite, je crus, &c. ; and in the imperfect sub- 
junctive, que je crusse, &c. The singular and the third person 
plural of the present indicative and subjunctive ; the imperative 
singular ; and the first future and first conditional ; are formed 
regularly: je croi-s, &c. ; que je croi-e, &c. ; croi-s ; je croi-rai, 
&c. ; je croi-rais, &c. 

12. Mettre, to put, (see II.) makes in the participle past, mis 
(jnise) ; in the preterite definite, je mis. &c. ; and in the 
imperfect subjunctive, que je misse, &c. The other parts are 
formed regularly. 

13. Moudre (see I.), to grind, changes the characteristic (d) 
to Z in the participle present, moulant ; participle past, moulu ; 
plural of the present indicative, nous moulons, &c. ; present 
subjunctive, que je moule, &c. ; imperfect indicative, je moulais, 
&c. ; plural of the imperative, moulons, moulez ; and also in 
the preterite definite, and imperfect subjunctive, which are 
formed respectively in us and usse, je moulus, &c, que je 
moulusse, &c. The singular of the present indicative, and the 
first future and first conditional, are formed regularly. 

14. Prendre, to take, makes in the participle present, prenant; 
participle past, pris {prise) ; plural present indicative, nous 
prenons, vous prenez, Us prennent ; present subjunctive, que je 
prenne, &c. ; que nous prenions, que vous preniez, qu His prennent ; 
imperfect indicative, je prenais, &c. ; preterite definite, je pris, 
&c. ; imperfect subjunctive, que je prisse, &c. ; imperative 
plural, prenons, prenez. The singular present indicative, and 
the first future and first conditional, are formed regularly. 

15. Suivre, to follow, makes in the participle past, suivi 
{suivie) ; and drops the characteristic (v) in the singular of the 
present indicative, and of the imperative, je suis, tu suis, il suit, 
— suis. It is regular in all other respects. 

16. Vivre, to live, makes in the participle past, vecu (vecue) ; 
in the preterite definite, je vecus, &c. ; in the imperfect sub- 
junctive, que je vecusse, &c. It drops the characteristic (v) 
in the singular of the present indicative, and of the imperative, 
je vis, tu vis, il vit, — vis. The other parts are formed regularly. 

17. Vainer e, to vanquish, to conquer, changes the charac- 
teristic (c) to qu in the participle present, v clinquant ; plural 
present indicative, vous vainquons, &c, ; present subjunctive, 
que je vainqae, &c. ; imperfect indicative, je vainqiiais, &c. ; 
preterite definite, je vainqnis, &c. ; imperfect subjunctive, 
que je vainquisse, &c. ; imperative plural, vainquons, vainquez. 
The other parts are formed regularly, only that the third 



136 



A GRAMMAR OP THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



person singular present indicative rejects the t : il vainc, instead 
of vainct. 

18. Sourdre, to spring, to rise (of water), Las, besides the 
infinitive, only the third person singular present, il sourd. 

Passive Voice of Transitive Verbs. 

The passive voice of a transitive verb is formed, as has been 
stated already, by the conjunction of the verb etre, to be, 
throughout all its modes and tenses, with the participle past of 
the verb conjugating — which participle past agrees in gender 
and number with the nominative or subject of the verb : je suis 
aime or aimee (according to whether the person speaking is of 
the male on female sex), I am loved; tu es aime or aimee, il 
(on) est aime, elle est aimee, nous sommes aimes or aimees, vous 
etes aime or aimee (singular), vous etes aimes or aimees, Us sont 
aimes, elles sont aimees, &c. 

Conjugation of Pronominal or Reflexive Verbs. 

In conjugating a pronominal or reflexive verb, the second 
pronoun, (pronoun regimen) is placed, in the simple tenses, 
before the verb ; in the compound tenses, before the auxiliary. 
As has already been stated, the pronominal verbs are conjugated 
with etre. Of course, the pronominal verbs follow the conju- 
gation assigned to them respectively by their termination. 



BE FLATTER, To flatter one's self. 
Indicative Mode. 



je mefiatte, I flatter myself. 

tu te flattes. 

il {elle, on) seflatie. 

nous nous flattons. 

vous vousflattez. 

Us (elles) seflattent. 



IMPERFECT. 

je me flattais, I flattered myself (I 
&c. was flattering myself). 

nous nous fiatiions. 
&c. 



PRETERITE DEFINITE. 

je me flattai, I flattered myself. 

fee. 
nous nous flattdmes. 

&c, 

PRETERITE INDEFINITE, OV 
COMPOUND PERFECT. 

je me suis flatte, or flattee, I have 
flattered myself. 
tu fes flatte, or flattee. 
il (on) s 1 est flatte, or elle s' est flattee. 
nous nous sommes flattes, or flattees. 
vous vous etes flattes, or flattees. 
Us se sont flattes, or elles se sont flattees. 



CONJUGATION OF PRONOMINAL VERBS. 



187 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR or PAULO-ANTE 
PLUPERFECT. 

je me fus flatte, or flattee, I had 
&c. flattered myself. 

nous nous fumes flattes, or flattees. 
&c. 

PLUPERFECT. 

je m'etais flatte, or flattee, I had flat- 
foe, tered myself. 

nous nous etions flattes, or flattees. 
&c. 



FIRST FUTURE. 



je me flatterai, I shall or will flatter 
&c. myself. 

nous nous flatterons. 
&c. 



SECOND FUTURE. 

je me serai flatte or flattee, I shall or 
&c. will have flattered myself. 

nous nous serons flattes or flattees. 
&c. 



Conditional Mode. 



PRESENT OV FIRST CONDITIONAL. 

je me flatterais, I should or would 
&c. flatter myself. 

nous nous flatter ions, &c. 

PAST or SECOND CONDITIONAL. 

je me serais flatte, or flattee, I should 
or would have flattered myself. 
&c. 



nous nous serions flattes, or flattees. 
vous vous seriez flattes, or flattees. 
&c. 

Or, also, 

je me fusse flatte, or flattee. 

&c. 
nous nous fussions flattes, or flattees. 

&c. 



Imperative Mode. 

2nd person singular, flatte-toi, flatter thyself. 

1st person plural. flattons-nous, let us flatter ourselves. 

2nd „ flattez-vous, flatter yourself, flatter yourselves. 



Subjunctive Mode. 



PRESENT Or FUTURE. 

que je me flatte, that I (may) flatter 
&c. myself. 

que nous nous flattions. 
&c. 



IMPERFECT. 

que je me flattasse, that I might 
&c. flatter myself. 

que nous nous flattassions, 
&c. 



que je me sois flatte, or flattee, that I 
(may) have flattered myself. 

&c. 
que nous nous soy ons flattes, or flattees. 

&c. 

PLUPERFECT. 

que je me fusse flatte, or flattee, that I 
&c. had flattered myself. 

que nous nous fussions flattes, or 
flattees. 
&c. 



138 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

Infinitive Mode. 



PRESENT. 

se flatter, to flatter one's self. 



s'etreflattS, or flattee ; flattes, or flatties, 
to have flattered ones self. 



Participles. 



seflattant, flattering one's self. 



PAST. 



s'etant flatte, or flattee; flattes, or 
flatties, having flattered one's self. 



TTnipersonal Verbs. 

Unipersonal verbs are used onlj in the third person singular ; 
they follow, of course, the conjugation assigned to them 
respectively by their termination. 

TONNER, To thunder. 
Indicative Mode. 



PRESENT. 

il tonne, it thunders. 

IMPERFECT. 

il tonnait, it thundered, it was 
thundering. 

PRETERITE DEFINITE. 

il tonna 9 it thundered. 

PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 

il a tonne, it has thundered. 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR Or PAULO-ANTE 
PLUPERFECT. 

il eut tonne, it had thundered. 



PLUPERFECT. 

il avait tonne, it had thundered. 

FIRST FUTURE. 

il tonnera, it will or shall thunder. 

SECOND FUTURE. 

il aura tonne, it will or shall have 
thundered. 



Conditional Mode. 



PRESENT Or FIRST CONDITIONAL. 

il tonnerait, it would or should 
thunder. 



PAST Or SECOND CONDITIONAL. 

il aurait tonne, it would or should 
have thundered. 



Subjunctive Mode. 



PRESENT Or FUTURE. 

qvlil onne, that it (may) thunder. 



IMPERFECT. 



qu-il tonndt, that it thundered (that 
it might thunder). 



qyZil ait tonne, that it (may) have 
thundered. 



PLUPERFECT. 



oyCil eut tonne, that it had thundered 
(that it might have thundered). 



INTERROGATIVE FORM OE CONJUGATION. 139 



Ineinitiye Mode. 

PRESENT. 

tonner, to thunder. 



PAST. 

avoir tonne, to have thundered. 



Participles. 

PRESENT. 

tonnant. thundering. 



PAST. 

ayant tonne, having thundered. 



Interrogative and Negative forms of Conjugation, 
A. Interrogative Form. 

a. The personal pronoun subject is placed, in the simple tenses, 
after the verb; in the compound tenses, after the auxiliary; 
and a hyphen is put between the verb or auxiliary and the 
pronoun: aimes-tu? avez-vous aime? 

Remarks. — ( a ) When the verb ends in a vowel, a t placed between two 
hyphens is inserted as a euphonic letter between the verb and the personal 
pronoun of the third person (il, elle, on) : vous aime-t-il ? vous a-t-elle aime ? 
finira-t-on bientot ? ( b ) E rnute terminating the verb is changed to e before 
the pronoun je : aime-je 1 (instead of aime-je ?) eusse-je recu ? (instead of 
eusse-je regu ? 

b. The form est-ce que? (is it that?) must be substituted 
for the direct interrogative form, in the first person singular of 
the present indicative, when that person happens to have only 
one syllable : est-ce que je prends ? (not prends-je) ; est-ce que 
je sers? (not sers-je) ; est-ce que je mens ? (not mens-je), &c. 
We may say, however, ai-je ? dis-je ? dois-je ? fais-je ? suis-je ? 
vais-je ? vois-je ? The form est-ce que is preferable also in the 
first person singular of the present indicative of verbs of the 
first conjugation : est-ce que je parte ? (better than parle-je .?) 
est-ce que je donne ? (better than donne-je ?) &c. 

c. When the subject is a substantive, it is either put at the 
head of the sentence, with the corresponding pronoun placed 
after the verb or auxiliary, as the case may be: Has your 
brother seen him ? votre frere Va-t-il vu? or the form with 
est-ce que is resorted to : est-ce que votre frere Va vu ? 

d. With respect to interrogative sentences with the pronouns 
absolute, qui, que, the student is referred to pp. 95 — 97. 



140 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



B. Negative Form. 

The English, not is rendered in French by ne-pas or ne-point. 
In the simple tenses, the ne is placed before the verb, or the 
pronoun or pronouns preceding the latter ; the pas or point is 
placed after the verb : je ne veux pas ; je ne lui donnerai pas 
mon argent ; il ne travaille point. In the compound tenses, the 
ne is placed before the auxiliary or the pronoun or pronouns 
preceding the latter, the pas or point is placed after the 
auxiliary : vous ne rrtavez pas (lit cela; il ne nCen a point parle. 

C. Negative-Interrogative Form. 

In the simple tenses ne is put before the verb or the pronoun 
or pronouns preceding the latter, the personal pronoun subject 
is placed after the verb, and pas or point after the pronoun 
subject : ne V aime-t-elle pas comme sa soeur ? n'avez-vous pas 
du pain ? In the compound tenses, ne is put before the 
auxiliary or the pronoun or pronouns preceding the latter, the 
personal pronoun subject is placed after the auxiliary, and pas 
or point after the pronoun subject : ne lui avez-vous pas donne 
sa demission. 

The remarks under A, apply equally in negative interrogative 
sentences. 

Use of the Negation. 

"We have three degrees of negation in French : ne, ne pas, ne 
point ; ne is the slightest, ne point the strongest negation ; ne 
pas holds the middle between the two. 

Point is used in connection with ne, in reference to some- 
thing permanent and habitual ; pas, in reference to something 
temporary, transient, occasional, accidental: il ne lit point, he 
never reads ; il ne lit pas, he is not reading (just now). 

"When the sentence contains an adverb of comparison (si, 
aussi, tant, autant, plus, moins, &c), or a numeral adjective, 
pas is always preferable to point : son fr ere n'est pas aussi grand 
que mon cousin ; il na pas perdu autant que moi ; il ne gagne 
pas vingt francs par semaine. 

In interrogative negative sentences, the use of point serves 
to imply a doubt on the mind of the questioner : n'avez-vous 
point dit cela ? did you not say so ? (i. e., I think you said so, 
but I am not quite sure, and therefore address this question to 
you to remove my doubts on the subject;) pas, on the other 



USE OF THE NEGATION. 141 

hand, implies a positive knowledge or conviction on the part of 
the questioner : n'avez-vous pas dit cela ? did you not say so ? 
(i. e., can you deny that you said so ?) 

JPas and point may be omitted with oser, pouvoir, cesser, 
savoir, used absolutely, or followed by an infinitive : je n'ose, 
je n'ose lui dire cela; je ne puis, il ne pent marcher \ nous 
ne cessons de travailler ; il ne saurait lui pardonner ; ne sauriez- 
vous y aller ? 

JPas and point must - be suppressed when the sentence 
contains some other negative expression, such as jamais, rien, 
guere, nul, nullement, aucun, personne, ni-ni^ or que used in the 
sense of but : je ne le reverrai jamais ; elle ne m?a rien donne ; 
Titus ne passait aucun jour sans fair e une tonne action; je rCai 
vu personne ; elle n'# ni beaute ni vertu ; je ne vois partout que 
miser e. 

The simple negation ne, is used sometimes in French where 
it is not expressed in English, viz. : — 

a. After the conjunctive locutions a moins que (unless), de 
crainte que, de peur que (lest, for fear that, for fear of) ; a moins 
que vous ne lui parliez, unless you speak to him ; de crainte 
que son pere ne Voublie, lest his father should forget it ; de 
peur que safemme ne Vait trompe, for fear that his wife should 
have deceived him. 

Notes. — 1. In poetry the negation is not always used after a moins que : 
&, moins qu' a nos projets un plein effet reponde (Corneille). 

2. If the not is expressed in English, ne pas must be used after de peur 
que, &c. : a moins que Vhonneur de votre famille ne vous soit pas cher, unless 
the honour of your family be not dear to you. 

b. After the verbs craindre, avoir peur, apprehender, trembler, 
when used affirmatively : il craint que cette malheureuse ne soit 
deja partie, he is afraid that this unfortunate one has already 
left : je tremble qu'il ne soit arrive quelque malheur, I tremble 
lest some misfortune should have happened. But when the 
verbs craindre, &c, are used negatively, no negation is inserted 
in the dependent sentence : il ne craint pas que vous Voubliez, 
he is not afraid that you will forget him. 

Note. — Where not is expressed in English in the subordinate sentence, 
ne pas must be used after craindre, apprehender, avoir peur, trembler, no 
matter whether the principal sentence be affirmative or ner/ative : il craint 
que son frere ne vicnne pas, he is afraid that his brother will not come ; je 
ne crams point quit ne se tire pas d'affairc, I have no fear of his not getting 
out of the scrape. 

c. After autre, autrement,plus 7 mieux, moins, moindre, meilleur, 
pire, when used in affirmative sentences: il est tout autre quit 



142 A GRAMMAR OF THE TRENCH LANGUAGE. 

rCetait ; il est plus riclie qu'on ne le dit; sa Jllle est mieux 
instruite que vous ne le croyez. But if the principal sentence 
is negative, no negation is inserted in the dependent sentence : 
il ix'est pas plus modest e qu'il le par ait. 

d. After empecher, to hinder, to prevent ; and eviter, to 
prevent, to avoid: les fautes d'Homere rCont pas empeche qu'il 
nefut sublime; je voudrais Men eviter qv?il ne vint chez-moi. 

e. After nier, douter, disputer, contester, disconvenir, desesperer, 
when accompanied by a negation : je ne doute point que cela 
n'ait ete dit; je ne disconviens pas qu'il ne soit plus riche que 
son frere; je ne desespere pas qu'il ne se tire d' affaire. But 
when nier, douter, &c, are employed affirmatively, the dependent 
sentence takes no negation : je doute que cela ait ete dit; je 
desespere quit se retablisse. 

Additional Remarks. — The conjunctive locutions avant que, sans que, 
and the verb defendre, are never followed by ne : avant qu'^ fasse froid : 
le maitre a defendu que nous allassions aujardin. 

Concord of the Verb with its Subject. 

I. A verb must agree with its subject* in number and person : 
je vous aime; tu ne paries pas ; il s'en va; sa mere lui a donud 
de V argent; nous avons dine; vous perdriez a ce jeu-ld; les 
richesses attirent les amis, la pauvrete les eloigne. 

II. When the subject is composed of several nouns or 
pronouns, the verb is put in the plural; and, if the several 
words composing the subject happen to be of different persons, 
it is made to agree with the person taking precedence : t son 
pere et son oncle viendront nous voir ; le capitaine et moi nous 
allames droit a la porte de la chambre ; toi et lui vous etes 
heureux. 

Exceptions. 

1. The verb agrees with the last of several nouns or pronouns 
composing the subject. 

a. "When the words composing the subject are of analogous 
import (synonymous) : son courage, son intrepidite etonne les 
plus braves. 

b. When the words composing the subject are connected by 

* The subject may be either a noun substantive, or a pronoun, or an 
infinitive ; or it may consist also of several substantives, pronouns, or 
infinitives. 

f The first person takes precedence of the second, the second of the 
third. 



CONCORD OP THE VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT. 143 

the conjunction ou : il rCy a rien que la crainte ou Vesper ance 
ne persuade aux homines. 

Remark. — However, if the words connected by ou happen to be of 
different persons, the verb is put in the plural and made to agree with the 
person taking precedence : vous on moi irons ; vous ou voire cousin ecrirez 
la lettre. 

c. When the words composing the subject are placed in 
order of gradation (in other terms, when they are arranged in 
a sort of climax) ; ce sacrifice, voire interet, voire honneur, la 
patrie Z'exige. 

d. When the last of the words composing the subject 
happens to be a collective or resuming expression, i. e., an 
expression referring to the other (preceding) components of the 
subject, collectively or to each of them separately, as tout, rien, 
nul, per sonne, aucun, cliacun: vieillards,femmes, e?ifants,])er$omie 
n'echappa au carnage; le temps, les Mens, la vie, tout est a la 
patrie. 

2. "When the subject is composed of two substantives, or 
pronouns, connected by one of the conjunctions, co?nme, de 
meme que, ainsi que, aussi Men que* the verb is made to agree 
with the first of the two nouns or pronouns : la sante, comme 
la fortune, retire sesfaveurs a ceux qui en abusent. 

III. JOun et V autre, and also ni Vun ni V autre, or any other 
compound subject of which the component parts are connected 
by ni, demand the verb in the plural : plus Vhomme et lafemme 
s* attacheront Vun a V autre, plus Tun et 1' autre seront heureux; 
fai lu vos deux discours, ni Tun ni 1' autre ne sont Ions ; ni Tor 
ni la grandeur ne nous rendent heureux. 

Remark. — However, if the action or state expressed by the verb can be 
attributed only to one of the two words connected by ni, and not to both 
of them at the same time, the verb is put in the singular : ni Vun ni V autre 
w'obtiendra le prix ; ni M. le Due, ni M. le Cardinal, ne sera nomme 
ambassadeur a St. Peters' 



TV. When the subject is composed of two or several infini- 
tives, the verb is put in the plural : vivre et jouir seront pour 
lui la meme chose ; lire trop et lire trop pen sont deux defauts. 

Remark. — We frequently use the pronoun ce after several infinitives, as 



* We may here incidentally remark, that there are found occasionally 
even in standard authors deviations and departures from this as well a3 
from many other rules. Such deviations, however, are, and remain 
blunders, and should not be imitated by the student, even though Pascal, 
Massillon, Racine, or the great Voltaire himself stood godfather to them ; 
they are like spots on the sun in the writings of these great authors. 



144 A GBAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

a species of resuming expression, to impart greater force and precision to 
the sentence. In sentences of this kind the verb etre is put in the singular : 
boire, manger, dormir, c'est toute son occupation, 

V. The verb etre preceded by ce, is put in the plural only 
when it is followed by a noun in the plural number, or a 
pronoun of the third person plural : ce sont les gros ecus qui 
lui manquent ; ne parlez pas a ces hommes, ce sont eux qui 
vous ont calomnie. 

VI. A verb preceded by a collective noun (noun of multi- 
tude), having for its complement the preposition de and a noun 
substantive, agrees either with the noun of multitude or with 
the complemented noun, according to whether the action or 
state expressed by the verb is attributed principally to the 
former or to the latter : la quantite de fourmis etait si grande 
quelle detruisait tous les biens que Von confiait a la terre. Here 
the verb agrees with the collective noun {quantite), as the state 
expressed by the verb is attributed to that noun, and not to 
the complemental substantive {fourmis). It is the quantity or 
number which is stated to have been great, and not the ants. 
Tine nuee de barbares desolerent le pays. Here the verb agrees 
with the complemental noun (barbares), as the action expressed 
by the verb (the laying waste of the land) is attributed to that 
noun, and not to the collective noun. It is the barbarians that 
are stated to have laid waste the land, not the cloud or swarm 
{nuee). Thus it will happen sometimes, that where there are 
two verbs in a sentence of the kind, the one may agree with 
the collective, the other with the complemental noun : la moitie 
des troupes qui firent la guerre perit de misere. Here the one 
verb (faire—faire la guerre) agrees with the complemental 
noun (troupes), as the action expressed by that verb is attributed 
to troupes and not to the collective noun (moitie) ; whereas the 
other verb (perir) is made to agree with the collective noun 
(la moitie), as it is not the military forces that are stated to 
have perished, but only the one-half of them (la moitie). 

In cases where the action or state expressed by the verb 
may be attributed equally and indifferently to the noun-collective 
and to the complemental noun, the general rule is to make the 
verb agree with the collective, if it happens to be a collective 
general, with the complemental substantive, if the noun of 
multitude happens to be a collective partitive (see p. 49) : la 
totalite des hommes redoute la mort ; wne troupe de nymphes 
couronnees defeurs nageaient enfoule derriere le char. 

VII. "When the collective is an adverb of quantity, as beau- 
coup, assez, peu, tant, inflniment, &c, the verb is always made 



GOVERNMENT OF THE VERB. 145 

to agree with the substantive complement : beaucoup de gens 
ont pense cela ; peu d'hommes raisonnent et tous veulent decider. 

VIII. The collectives, beaucoup, peu, la plupart, une infinite, 
are often used without the complemental substantive belonging 
to them being expressed; whenever this happens to be the 
case, the verb is made to agree with the complemental noun 
understood, just the same as if it were expressed : la flu/part 
(i. e., des hommes) sont sujets a des infirmites; beaucoup (i. e., de 
gens) sont a" avis, &c; une infinite (i. e.,depersonnes) pensent, &c; 
peu (i. e., d'hommes) travaillent avec autant d* ardeur que lui. 

IX. A verb having for its subject the relative pronoun qui, 
agrees in number and person with the antecedent of that 
pronoun : l'homme qui travaille ; le mari et la femme qui vont 
cm marche ; ce courage, cette intrepidite qui etonne les plus 
braves ; safaiblesse ou son inexperience qui lui a fait commettre 
tant de fautes ; c'est vous ou lui qui irez ; c'est voire inter et, 
voire Jionneur, la patrie qui exige ce sacrifice ; c'est noire temps, 
voire fortune, voire vie, tout qui est du a la patrie ; c'est Tun et 
l'autre qui meritent des eloges ; ce n'est ni Tun ni l'autre qui 
ont gagne la bataille ; ce n'est ni Tor ni la grandeur qui nous 
rendent heureux ; ce n'est ni Tun ni l'autre qui est le president 
de VAssemblee ; la totalite des hommes qui redoute la mort ; la 
moitie des troupes qui firent la guerre perit de niisere. 

X. After un de, un des, the verb is put either in the singular 
or in the plural, according to whether the action expressed by 
it is performed by one single or by several agents : c'est une de 
mes cousines qui m'envoie cette lettre ; V intemperance est un des 
vices qui detruisent la santL The same rule applies equally to 
the participle : c'est une de mes cousines que vous avez vue au 
theatre ; c'est une des plus belles tragedies que nous ayons vues. 

Government of the Verb. 

I. A verb cannot have two distinct* direct complements. 
Thus, 'Racine commits a blunder when he says, " ne vous 
informez pas ce que je deviendrai ; " he ought to have written 
de ce que je deviendrai. 

II. A verb should never be accompanied by two indirect 
complements expressing the same relation. Thus, you must 
not say, for instance, c'est a vous a qui je parle ; c est de vous 
dont il s'agit, c'est a la ville ou je vais. The suppression of 

* The student need hardly be told that this rule refers, of course, only 
to distinct complements ; in il aims son pere et sa mere, the two nouns 
form a compound complement, not two distinct ones. 

H 



146 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

c'est, which is used simply to impart greater force and precision 
to the sentence, will suffice to make the fault at once manifest : 
je parte a vous, a qui ; il sagit de vous, dont ; je vais a la ville, 
ou. The student will now clearly see that a qui, dont, oil, are 
here altogether without function. 

In sentences of this nature, the conjunction que is used to 
connect the two apparently distinct propositions : c'est a vous 
que je parle ; cest de vous qu' il s'agit; cest a la ville que je 
vais (it is to you that I speak, &c.). 

III. The student should always consult a good dictionary 
to ascertain the nature of the complement or complements 
governed by a French verb, as the two languages often differ 
materially in this respect ; thus, for instance, we say in English, 
he slanders his neighbour ; whereas in French we must say, il 
medit de son prochain ; she resembles her mother — elle ressemble 
a sa mere ; ask your brother — demandez a votre frere, &c. 

IY. When two verbs are associated, one of which governs a 
direct, the other an indirect, complement, the proper complement 
must be given to each of them : le peuple attaqua les Tuileries 
et s'en rendit maitre (not le peuple attaqua et se rendit maitre 
des Tuileries). 

The same rule applies equally in the case of two verbs 
governing each an indirect complement, dependent respectively 
on different prepositions : le vaisseau entra dans le 'port et en 
sortit le meme jour (not entra et sortit du port) . 

V. When a verb is accompanied both by a direct and an 
indirect complement, the shorter one of the two is placed first : 
elle a donne cent louis a lafille de sa nourrice ; elle donne a son 
frere tout V argent quelle gagne. If the two complements 
happen to be of equal length, or nearly so, the first place is 
assigned to the direct complement : elle donne toujour s de 
F argent a son frere. 

VI. The indirect complement of a verb should never be 
placed in a position to lead to a possible misconception of the 
actual meaning of the sentence ; thus, you must not say, for 
instance, essay ez d'abord de raniener ces esprit s eg ares, par la 
douceur ; but de ramener par la douceur ces esprits egares. 

VII. If the complement of a verb happens to be composed 
of several parts connected by one of the conjunctions et, ni, ou, 
the components so connected must always belong respectively 
to the same part of speech ; in other words, the conjunctions 
et, ni 9 ou, must only connect a substantive with a substantive, 
a verb with a verb, a preposition with a preposition, &c. : nous 
aimons V etude et la lecture des Ions auteurs (not et a lire les 



USE OP THE TENSES. 147 

bons auteurs) ; je crois que voire conduite est irreprochable et 
qrfon vous a calomnie (not je crois votre conduite irreprochable 
et qu'on, &c.) ; Us se plaisent au spectacle ou a la promenade 
(not a se promener) ; il n'est pas necessaire d'apprendre a tirer 
de Tare ni a manier lejavelot (not le onaniement dujavelot), &c. 

VIII. Passive verbs require for their complement either the 
preposition de, or the preposition par ; the former, when the 
verb denotes a mental action (as to love, to fear, to hate, to 
praise, &c.) ; the latter, when it denotes & physical or intellectual 
action : Vhonnete homme est estime de tout le monde ; elle est 
cherie de sa famille ; la bataille de Wagram fat gagnee par les 
Frangais en 1809 ; la poudre-a-canon fut inventee par Berthold 
Schivartz. 

Eemark. — However, par is sometimes substituted for de, to avoid the 
repetition of the latter : votre conduite a ete approuvee d'une commune voix 
par toutes les personnes sages et eclair ees. 

Use of the Tenses. 

As regards the respective use of the several tenses of the 
Indicative and Conditional, the two languages may be said to 
correspond pretty closely,* except that the French language 
lacks the periphrastic forms with to oe and to do (the participal 
inflection and the auxiliary inflection), of which the English 
language makes such copious and extensive use ; whilst, on the 
other hand, the latter lacks the preterite definite,^ and the 
preterite anterior, or paulo-ante pluperfect, of the Trench. 

The Trench imperfect expresses an action being performed 
(or a state existing, or an event occurring) at a time past: je 
lisais quand il entra. It implies continuance or repetition of an 
action, &c, and corresponds accordingly mostly to the English 
imperfect of the participal inflection: I was loving, j'aimais : 
or also to the English imperfect (preterite) of the radical 
inflection, when denoting a habit, or an action, &c, repeated 
from time to time. 

The preterite definite designates a time completely elapsed, 
and separated from the moment of speaking, by at least one 
night intervening : je recus une lettre hier, I received a letter 
yesterday. The preterite definite serves in Erench as aorist or 

* A dissertation on the nice differences and distinctions (mostly of a 
purely idiomatic character) that might be pointed out between the two 
languages, in the respective use of the several tenses, would be out of 
place in an elementary work like the present. 

t However, the preterite definite may be said to correspond to the 
English imperfect (preterite) of the radical and the auxiliary inflection, 

h2 



148 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

historic tense, and is employed accordingly, as the imperfect of 
the radical inflection (preterite) is in English, in the narrative 
of past events. 

The preterite indefinite, or compound perfect, designates 
either, like the preterite definite, a time completely elapsed, fai 
recu wne lettre l'annee derniere ; or a time of which a portion 
remains still unexpired : j 'ai recu une lettre aujourd'hui, cette 
semaine, ce mois, cette annee. 

The preterite anterior, or paulo-ante pluperfect, is commonly 
used after an adverb of time (dies que, lorsque, quand, aussitot 
que, apres que, a peine que, &c), in accessory sentences, when 
the verb of the principal sentence is in the perfect (preterite 
definite) tense : des qu!il eut dejeune, il commenca sa tdche. 

The English forms to be going to, to be about to, to be on 
the point of, and to have just, to have recently, to have not 
long, to have this moment, find their respective French equi- 
valents in alter and venir de ; nous allions nous mettre a table 
lorsque, &c, we were going to sit down to table, when, &c. ; 
monfrere vient de sortir, my brother has just gone out, &c. 

The Subjunctive Mode. 

The indicative is the mode of positive, definite, — the sub- 
junctive the mode of vague, indefinite, problematic — assertion. 
The former denotes reality, actuality, certainty ; the latter, 
incertitude, doubt, possibility. 

The subjunctive mode is used in French — 

a. In accessory sentences introduced by que, after verbs that 
denote will, wish, command, desire, request, doubt, fear, denial, 
or any other idea implying incertitude as to the performance of 
the action (or existence or realisation of the state, or occurrence 
of the event), expressed by the second verb : il veut que vous 
fassiez voire devoir ; j'ai peur qu'il ne soit pas arrive, &c. 

b. In accessory sentences introduced by que, after unipersonal 
verbs, or verbs used in the manner of unipersonal verbs, e. g. : 
il faut, il semble, il convient, il est or c'est fdcheux, il est or 
c'est utile, il suffit, il vaut mieux, il est juste, il se peut, &c. 

Exception. — II semble, accompanied by an indirect personal 
complement, and il y a, il parait, il resulte, il est certain, il est 
vrai, and some other unipersonal verbs implying positive, definite 
assertion, demand the second verb in the indicative mode : il 
me semble que vous avez raison ; il est sur que ses amis se sont 
charges de payer ses dettes, &c. 

Unless these verbs happen to be accompanied by a negation: 



THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 149 

il ne me semble pas que vous ayez raison ; il riest pas sur que 
ses amis se soient charges de payer ses dettes. 

c. Generally, in accessory sentences after a verb accom- 
panied by a negation, or nsed in the interrogative form : je 
ne crois pas qu'il vienne ; croyez-vous qu'il vienne ? 

Exception. — In sentences where the interrogative form is 
simply employed as an oratorical turn, by way of affirming with 
still greater force than is expressed by the positive form, the 
verb in the accessory sentence must be put in the indicative : 
oubliez-vous, que cet liomme n'est qu'un vil usurpateur? 

d. After a relative pronoun (or the relative pronominal 
adverb ou), when preceded by a superlative relative, and also 
after peu, le seul, V unique, le premier, le dernier, la seule, les 
seuls, les seules, la premiere, &c. : donnez-moi la meilleure plume 
que vous ayez ; le chien est le seul animal dont la fidelite soit 
a Vepreuve; e'est le moins honnete homme qn' il y ait ;il y a pen 
d'hommes qui sachent supporter Vadversite; c" est la seule place 
oil vous puissiez aspirer, &c. 

Remake. — However, if the verb of the principal sentence expresses positive 
and incontestible assertion or affirmation, the verb in the relative clause 
must be put in the indicative : c'est leplusjeune deses freres que je connais; 
ce n'est pas la plus aimahle des trois soeurs gyCil a epousee. 

e. After a relative pronoun (or the relative pronominal 
adverb ou), when the performance of the action (or existence 
or realisation of the state, or occurrence of the event), expressed 
by the verb following is doubtful or uncertain : choisissez une 

femme qui soit prudente; citez-moi un niaitre dont les legogis 
soient aussi profit ables que celles de V experience. 

f After quelque-que, quel que, quoi que, quoique (conjunction) : 
quelque vil que V usurp at eur soit; quels que soient ses crimes; 
quoi que vous en disiez ; quoique nous ne soyons pas riches. 

g. After certain conjunctive locutions compounded with que : 
afin que, pour que, a moins que, "Dieu veuille que, plut a Dieu 
que, a Dieu ne plaise que, en cas que, pose le cas que, suppose 
que, avant que, lien que, loin que, excepte que, encore que, non 
pas que, de crainte que, de peur que, pourvu que, sans que, 
jusqiC a ce que, moyennant que, tant s^enfaut que, ce n' "est pas que, 
pourpeu que : je suis venu, pour que nous parlions de cette affaire ; 
je vous ecrirai avant que vous partiez ; entrez sans qwHlvous voie. 

h. After que vicarious, i.e., que used in lieu of one of the 
conjunctive locutions compounded with que, or in lieu of si: 
approchez que (instead of afin que) je vous parle ; si voire 
soeur vient demain et qu^7 fasse beau temps (instead of s'il fait 
beau temps), nous irons nous promener. 



150 A GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

i. De fagon que, de sorte que, de maniere que, si ce rHest que 9 
si ?w?i que, are construed either with the indicative, or with the 
subjunctive ; with the former, when the idea conveyed by the 
second verb is positive, and relates to the present or past : il 
s'est conduit de maniere qu'z'Z a obtenu Vestime des honnetes 
gens ; with the latter, when the idea is doubtful, and relates to 
the future : conduisez-vous de maniere que vous obteniez Vestime 
des honnetes gens. 

The Infinitive Mode. 

An infinitive forming the complement of another verb, is 
usually joined to the latter by a preposition, and most com- 
monly by either de or a; by the former, for instance, after 
achever, apprehender, s'aviser, bldmer, bruler, craindre, dedaigner, 
defier, se depecher, desesperer, differer, discontinuer, gagner, 
regretter, resoudre, soupconner, &c. ; by the latter, for instance, 
after aimer, aider, aspirer, assigner, s'attendre, autoriser, balancer, 
se borner, decider, desapprendre, encourager, enseigner, s' entendre, 
exhorter, exposer, habituer, hesiter, inviter, manquer, (with a nega- 
tive this verb takes de ; and also in some colloquial phrases : 
il a manque d'etre tue, he has nearly lost his life,) s'obstiner, 
penser, persister, renoncer, repugner, se resoudre, viser, &c. 

The student should always, if possible, consult a good French 
dictionary to ascertain which preposition a verb requires before 
an infinitive following. 

After the following verbs the infinitive complement may take 
d& or a before it : commencer, consentir, continuer, contraindre, 
determiner, s'efforcer, engager, s^ennuyer, essay er, faillir, forcer, 
obliger, oublier, solliciter, souffrir, tdcher, tarder. The choice 
of the proper preposition depends here in a great measure 
on the ear, and on what good taste may demand; in the 
case of some of these verbs, however, the meaning is some- 
what modified by the respective use of either the one or the 
other of the two prepositions ; for instance, continuer a is used 
of an uninterrupted action: il continuait a vivre en libertin ; 
continuer de, of an action that has intervals of suspension : il 
continue de nous ecrire. Here again I would advise the student 
to consult a good French dictionary. 

The preposition de may be put before the infinitive or omitted 
(as the ear or good taste may require), after desirer, detester, 
esperer, souhaiter. 

The infinitive takes no preposition before it after aimer 
mieux, compter croire s daigner, devoir, entendre, faire, falloir, 
sHmaginer, laisser, oser,p<?uvoir,pretendre, savoir, sentir, vouloir. 



THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 151 



CHAPTEK VI. 

♦ 

THE PAETICIPLE. 

The participle is a form of the verb, so called from par < 
ticipating in the properties both of a verb and of an adjective. 

The participle has two simple forms, one for the present and 
one for the past. 

The formation of the participles, present and past, has been 
treated of already in the preceding chapter; the mode of 
forming the feminine and plural, and the comparison of par- 
ticiples, have been explained in the chapter on the Adjective. 



The Participle Present. 

I. The participle present in its participal capacity, remains 
always invariable ; in its adjectival capacity, it agrees in gender 
and nwmber with the word which it qualifies. 

The true participle present expresses an action, and may be 
replaced by another form of the verb .preceded by qui, or by 
one of the conjunctions lorsque, parce que, puisque, quoique, &e., 
corresponding to the English when, if, since, though, &c. : 
George, aimant son frere, ne put rien lui refuser ( George qui 
aimait son frere, &c.) ; les hommes aimant tout le monde, n'aimeni 
ordinairement personne (les hommes qui aiment, &c.) ; cet homme 
prevoyant le danger, ne se mit pas (cependant) sur sa garde (cet 
homme quoiqu'il prevoyat). 

The verbal adjective marks the state or condition of the word 
which it qualifies, and may be constructed with one of the 
tenses of the verb etre: ce sont des hommes obligeants (des 
hommes qui sont obligeants) ; les personnes aimantes ont plus dc 
jouissances que les autres (les personnes qui sont aimantes), &c. 

The qualificative in ant, is participle present whenever it is — 

a. Accompanied by a direct complement : son frere ecoutant 
ies motifs de la vengeance, se jeta sur lui. 

b. Accompanied by a negation : des ecoliers ne travaillant 
pas, ne repondant pas aux soins qu'on leur donne. 



152 A GRAMMAU OF THE PEENCH LANGUAGE. 

c. Preceded by the preposition en* either expressed or 
understood (gerundive) : on dit souvent la verite en riant ; la 
mer mugissant (i. e., en mugissant), ressemblait a une personne 
irritee. 

The qualificative in ant, is usually verbal adjective, when it 
is not accompanied by any kind of complement (since in that 
case it expresses almost invariably the state or condition of the 
word to which it relates) : il ne lit que des livres amusants : les 
eaux dormantes sont meilleures pour les chevaux que les eaux 
vives ; on apercevait sur la mer des mats et des cordages flottants. 

The qualificative in ant, when accompanied by an indirect 
complement, is either participle present or verbal adjective ; the 
former when the sense indicates an action : je les ai vus com- 
battant au champ flhonneur {comb att ant, i. e., qui combattaieni 
—action) ; on voit la tendre rosee degouttant f des feuilles 
(degouttant, i. e., qui degoutte — action) ; the latter when the 
sense indicates a state or condition : voyez-vous ces feuilles 
degouttantes % de rosee (qui sont degouttantes de rosee — state). 

II. The participle present is never used in French as a 
substantive, as it is in English, 

The Participle Past. 

I. The participle past, when not accompanied by an auxiliary, 
agrees, as an adjective, in gender and number with the word to 
which it relates : les inimities sourdes et eachees sont plus a 
craindre que les haines ouvertes et declarees. 

Exception. — The participles excepte, suppose, passe, unaccom- 
panied by an auxiliary, are invariable, when preceding the word 
which they respectively qualify : excepte sa sceur, suppose ces 
faits, passe cette heure. The same rule applies equally to the 
participles, vu, approuve, certifie, collationne, standing at the 
beginning of a sentence in certain administrative acts : vu par 
la cour les pieces mentionnees ; certifie la presente copie conforme 
a V original, &c. 

But if the word modified happens to precede the participle, 
excepte, suppose, passe, vu, approuve, certifie, collationne, are 
made to agree in gender and number with it : sa soeur exceptee, 

* En is the only preposition that may precede the participle present in 
the French language. Whenever the participle present in the English 
language is preceded by any preposition not corresponding to the French 
en, the English participle present is rendered by the French infinitive. 

t We see the gentle dew dripping off the leaves (making the leaves drip). 

% See those leaves dripping with dew 



THE PARTICIPLE PAST. 153 

ees faits supposes, cette lieure passee, les pieces mentionnees vues 
par la cour ; la presente copie certifiee conforme a V original, &c. 

II. The participle past accompanied by etre, agrees in gender 
and number with the subject of the verb : son frere est venu ; 
sa soeur est venue ; ces gargons ne sont pas invites ; ces demoiselles 
soni invitees. 

Exceptions. — 1. The participle past of a unipersonal verb 
remains always invariable, no matter whether conjugated with 
etre (il s'est presente une difficulte ; il a ete pris des mesures) ; 
or with avoir. (See III.) 

2. In the conjugation of pronominal verbs, the auxiliary etre 
is used in the place of avoir, simply to please the ear, which 
might be offended were we to say, for instance, je m'&i flattc, 
nous nous avons presentes (instead oije me suis jlatte, nous nous 
sommes presented) . 

The same rules that govern the agreement of the participle 
past accompanied by avoir (see III.), apply accordingly equally 
to the case of the pronominal verbs, though they are conjugated 
with etre. 

III. The participle past accompanied by avoir, never agrees 
with the subject of the verb ; it agrees in gender and number 
with the direct complement or regimen of the verb, when it 
happens to be placed after that complement ; but it remains 
invariable when it precedes the latter : il a regu une lettre de sa 
soeur (invariable, because the direct complement — une lettre — is 
preceded by the participle) ; la lettre que fai reeve ce matin 
(agreement of the participle with the direct complement [que, 
which is the representative of the feminine noun, lettre'], 
because the participle is placed after the complement) ; nous 
avons bride nos vaisseaux — quels vaisseaux avez-vous brides ; il 
a vendu deux montres— -a qui les a-t-il vendues ; Us m'ont cause 
des desagremens — que de desagremens Us m!ont causes ; il a 
recompense ses creatures — mes amis je vous ai recompenses, &c. 

The participle remains accordingly invariable also when 
the verb is not accompanied by a direct complement*: cette 
malheureuse a peri de miser e ; Us n'ont pas repondu a notre 
attente, &c. 

Observations to III. 

1. The direct complement of a participle past, when preceding 
the latter, is expressed by one of the pronouns, que, le, la, one, 
nous, te, voics, se ; or by a noun substantive preceded by quel, 
que de, combien de, aidant de* 

h 3 



154 A GRAMMAR OF THE TRENCH LANGUAGE. 

Remark. — The participle past remains invariable when it has for it3 
direct complement the pronoun V, representing a part of the sentence 
understood; since in that case V is equivalent to cela, which, being mas- 
culine and singular, cannot, of course, cause any mutation of the participle 
of which it forms the complement : V affaire fut plus serieuse que je ne 
Yavais pens6 (i. e., que je n'avais pense cela, soil, qu'elle serait serieuse), the 
matter was more serious than I had thought, i. e., than I had thought it 
to be (serious). 

2. The vague pronoun en, signifying de cela, is invariably 
used as an indirect complement, and cannot, accordingly, 
exercise the slightest influence over the participle: il a des 
troupes, et il en a demands aux autres peuples de la Grece. In 
sentences like le resultat de V entreprise n' a pas justi fie' T opinion 
que fen avais concue, the participle past agrees with the direct 
complement preceding it (in the instance here given, que), and 
not with the en. 

Eemark. — En used as the indirect complement of an adverb, such as 
combien, autant, plus, Sec, forms with the latter the direct complement of 
an active verb. However, combien en, autant en, &c. (which are simply 
equivalent terms for combien de cela, autant de cela, &c), being always of 
the masculine gender and singular number, cannot, of course, cause any 
mutation of the participle. To write, therefore, autant d'ennemis il a 
attaques, autant il en a vaincus, is a grammatical blunder. 

3. The participle past of a unipersonal verb is always 
invariable, no matter whether conjugated with avoir (les 
qrandes chaleurs qu'il a fait ; la disette qu'il y a eu, &c.) or 
with etre. (See II.) 

4. The participle past of intransitive verbs conjugated with 
avoir remains always invariable, as intransitive verbs cannot 
have a direct complement ; in sentences like les dix ans qu'il a 
vecu, il les a vecu Tieureux, the que and les, though apparently 
direct complements, are really indirect complements, standing 
respectively in lieu of pendant lesquels, and pendant eux. 

5. a. Essentially pronominal verbs having always the second 
pronoun for their direct complement, the participle past of 
them agrees, of course, always with the latter : les troupes se 
sont emparees de la ville. 

Exception. — The essentially pronominal verb s*arroger, which 
never has the second pronoun for its direct complement : elles 
se sont arroge des droits ; but we write, les droits qu' elles se 
sont arroges, because the participle has here a direct comple- 
ment preceding it (que, which represents les droits). 

b. The participle past of pronominal verbs formed from 
transitive verbs, follows the general rule (III) : ces demoiselles 
se sont hldmees ; les lettres qu'ils se sont adressees (agreement 



PARTICIPLE PAST — OBSERVATIONS. 155 

of the participle with the direct complement preceding — se and 
que) ; Us se sont address?, des lettres (no agreement because the 
direct complement stands after the participle) ; Us se sont ecrit 
(participle invariable, because the verb is not accompanied by a 
direct complement). 

c. The participle past of pronominal verbs formed from 
intransitive verbs, remains always invariable, in conformity to 
observation 4 : nous nous sommes succede ; elles se sont parle. 

Exception. — The three pronominal verbs, se douter, se pre- 
valoir, s' echapper, to which custom has imparted the character 
of essentially pronominal verbs, and of which the participle 
past agrees accordingly always with the second pronoun: les 
deux brigands se sont echappes ; cette fille ^ est prevalue de 
voire siniplicite ; nous nous etions doutes de la cause de voire 
depart, 

6. The participle past between two que\ is always invariable : 
la peine que f avais prevu que vous causer ait cette affaire; les 
embarras que nous avons su que vous aviez. 

7. The participle past followed by an infinitive is either 
variable or invariable, according to whether it is the pronoun 
preceding, or the infinitive following, that forms the direct 
complement of the verb ; and in order to solve that question, 
it suffices to see whether or not the infinitive will bear to be 
changed to the participle present : if it will bear this change, 
it is the pronoun preceding which is the direct complement, 
and the participle must, accordingly, be made to agree with 
it ; if it does not admit of this change, it is itself the comple- 
ment of the sentence, and the participle remains accordingly 
invariable: Vacirice que j'ai ent endue chanter, i.e., chant ant, 
the actress whom I have heard sing, i. e., singing ; cette ariette 
est charmante, je Vai entendu chanter this arietta (tune) is 
charming, I have heard it sung (we could not say here chant ant, 
which would mean I have heard it singing). 

Eemarks. — ( a ) The participle past fait, followed by an infinitive, is 
always invariable : le negoce qui Vavait fait jleurir, servit a la retablir. ( b ) The 
infinitive is sometimes understood after the participle of the verbs pouvoir, 
vouloir, devoir; in which case the participle past remains invaluable, 
having for its direct complement the infinitive understood : il a fait toutes 
les demarches qvJil a pu (scil. faire). if) When there happens to intervene 
a preposition between the participle and the infinitive following, the par- 
ticiple agrees eith er with the pronoun preceding, and is accordingly variable, 
or with the infinitive following, and remains accordingly invariable ; the 
sense of the sentence will settle the question of agreement or non-agreement: 
la dame quej'ai engagee a darner 9 the lady whom I have engaged to dance 
(agreement, because the pronoun preceding — que — is clearly the direct com- 
plement here) : il nous a recommande de lui ecrire (the participle remains 



156 A GEAMMAH OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

invariable, because the infinitive ecrire is clearly the direct complement in 
this sentence). 

Note. — When the participle past happens to be preceded by two direct 
complements, it always agrees with the second of the two : les torts que je 
vous ai pries d'oublier. With the participles eu and donne, followed by a 
preposition and an infinitive, the direct complement preceding may either 
belong to the infinitive or to the participle, and the latter may thus be left 
invariable, or made to agree in gender and number with the complement, 
according as the one or the other view be adopted : les obstacles que j'ai eu 
a surmonter, the obstacles that I have had to surmount ; here the sen- 
tence Lj read: j'ai eu a surmonter des obstacles, I have had to surmount 
obstacles ; les obstacles que j'ai eus a surmonter, the obstacles which I have 
had to surmount ; here the sentence is read: j'ai eu des obstacles a sur- 
monter, I have had obstacles to surmount. Les lefons qu'on m'a donne* a 
apprendre — les lemons qu'on w?a donnees a apprendre. 

8. Le peu may either mean a little, small, or trifling amount, 
or the absolute want, or lack of a thing ; it means the former 
when the sense of the sentence permits its suppression^ and, 
in that case, the participle past agrees with the noun substantive 
placed after le peu : lepeu d' affectionate vous lui avez te'moignee 
lui a rendu le courage, the slight affection which you have shown 
him, has revived his spirits. Here we may suppress le peu, and 
say simply V affection que, &c, the affection which, &c. ; it 
means the latter when the sense does not admit of its sup- 
pression, in which case the participle past agrees with le peu, 
and remains accordingly invariable : le peu de sincerite qu'il a 
montre nous a rebutes ; here le peu de sincerite, means the want, 
the absence, of all sincerity. 

9. The intransitive verbs couter and valoir, are sometimes 
used as transitive verbs, the former in the sense of causer, 
exiger (to cause, to require) ; the latter in the sense of procurer, 
rapporter (to procure, to produce). When couter and valoir 
are thus used in a transitive sense, their respective participles 
past, coute and valu, follow the general rule on the agreement 
or non-agreement of the participle past with the direct com- 
plement (III.) : les peines que cette affaire rrCa coutees (i. e., 
causees), the trouble which this business has cost (i. e., caused) 
me; que d'eloges ne lui a pas valws (i. e., procures) sa conduite 
nolle et genereuse, what praises has not his no'ble and generous 
conduct got him (procured for him) ; cette affaire ma coute une 
peine infinie ; ses travaux liter aires lui ont enjin valu une pension. 

IY. The same rules that have been laid down for the agree- 
ment of the qualificative adjective with the noun or pronoun, 
qualified by the same (see p. 55), apply equally in the case of 
the variable participle past. 



THE ADVERB. 157 



CHAPTEE VII. 



THE ADVERB, THE PREPOSITION, THE CONJUNCTION, 
AND THE INTERJECTION. 

These four parts of speech may be dismissed more briefly 
here, as they are not susceptible of mutation or inflection. 

A. The Adverb. 

I. Most of the French adverbs are formed from adjectives, 
by adding the termination ment (corresponding to the English 

a. To the masculine of adjectives ending in a voivel : poli — 
poliment ; absurde — absur dement ; assidu — assidument, &c. 

Exceptions. — a Impuni makes impimement ; traitre, traitreuse- 
ment ; however, the latter adverb is not formed from traitre, 
but from traitreuse (feminine of traitreux), in accordance 
with h. b In the following the final e mute of the adjective is 
changed to e: aveugl&ment, commodkment (incommo dement) , 
conform&ment, enormement, opinidtrement, uniform6?hent. c JFow, 
mou, beau, nouveau, form the adverb respectively from the 
feminine of their second form (fol, mol, bel, nouvel) : follement, 
mollement, bellement, nouvellement. 

b. To the feminine of adjectives ending in a consonant: 
fort—fortement; franc— francliement, &c. 

Exceptions. — a Gentil makes gentiment. b In the following, 
the final e mute of the feminine of the adjective is changed 
to e: commimement, confusement, diffus&ment, expressement, 
importuniment, obscur intent, precis&ment, profondement. c Adjec- 
tives ending in ant and ent, change the final nt to m : constant, 
constamment ; evident, evidemment. 

Remark. — Lent makes lentement; present, presentement ; vehement, vehe- 
mentement. 

d The following are derived from obsolete adjectives, or such 
as are hardly ever used: incessamment {incessant), sciemment 
(scient), profusement {prof us) ; and the following are not 
derived from adjectives : comment, notamment, nuitamment. 



158 A GEAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

II. Certain adjectives are sometimes used in the capacity of 
adverbs, to modify a verb ; to this class belong more particularly 
the following: oon {sentir ion), clair (voir clair),faux {chanter 
faux), ferme {f rapper ferme, tenir ferme), haut (parler hauf), 
juste {chanter juste), mauvais {sentir mauvais), soudain {sortir 
soudain), &c. 

III. Besides the adverbs formed from adjectives, the French 
language has, of course, like the English, a number of essential 
adverbs, and of adverbial locutions (of time, order, place, 
manner, quality, quantity, &c). This, however, is a subject 
which belongs more properly to the domain of the dictionary, 

'to which the student is referred for the respective French 
equivalents of the English adverbs, and vice versa. 

IV. The comparison of adverbs has been treated of already 
in the chapter on the adjective (p. 52). 

V. With regard to the proper syntactic position of adverbs, 
it may suffice here to remark, that where the adverb qualifies 
an adjective, or an adverb, it is placed before the word qualified : 
son pere est tres riche ; vous venez bien tard. But where the 
adverb qualifies a verb, the general rule is to place it in the 
simple tenses after the verb, in the compound tenses between 
the auxiliary and the participle : il parle souvent de vous ; Us 
se sont bien battus. Adverbial locutions are placed in the 
simple tenses after the verb, in the compound tenses after the 
participle : je vous quiite a jamais, il V a fait a dessein. 

Remarks. — a. The adverbs and adverbial locutions of order, may be 
placed also before the verb : d'abord on me demanda mon nom, or on me 
demanda d'abord mon nom. The same remark applies also to the adverbs 
and adverbial locutions of time definite : il est arrive hier, et demain matin 
nous irons le voir. b. The interrogative adverbs (comment, combien, pourquoi), 
and the relative pronominal adverbs {oil, d'ou, par oil), are, of course always 
placed before the verb. , 

VI. "With the exception of the adverbs of quantity, and a 
few adverbs formed from adjectives, and which retain the 
complement of the adjective {conformement—conformement a la 
loi ; anterieurement — anterieurement au deluge, <fcc), adverbs 
have no complement. 

VII. The use of the negations has been treated of already 
in the chapter on the verb (p. 140). 



B. The Preposition. 

In the following list, we shall give only the most general 
meaning in English of the French prepositions and prepositive 



THE PEEPOSITION. 159 

locutions, referring the student for more detailed information 
to a good dictionary. 

a. "Prepositions. 

A, to ; apres, after ; a travers, through, across ; attendu, 
considering, on account of; avant, before (denotes priority of 
time, and precedence of order) ; avec, with ; chez, at ; contre, 
against; dans, in (positive, definite); de, of; depuis, since; 
derriere, behind ; des, from ; devant, before (with respect to 
place x and also with respect to order, in an opposite sense to 
apn*es) ; durante during (denotes a longer, uninterrupted dura- 
tion) ; en, in (indefinite, vague) ; entre, between, betwixt (said 
of two objects, but used also sometimes in lieu of parmi, 
among : il fut trouve entre les morts, he was found among the 
dead) ; envers, towards ; environ, about ; fors, save, except 
(obsolete) ; hormis, except ; hors, save^ except (mostly construed 
with de—hors de, out of) ; jusque, jusques, to, till, as far as 
(mostly construed with other prepositions, and more particu- 
larly with a— jusque is used before consonants : jusque da/ns 
les nuages ; and also before vowels, the final e being replaced 
by an apostrophe: jusqu' auoo nues ; jusques is used before 
vowels, but less frequently than jusque : jusques a la fin du 
monde) ; malgre, in spite of; moyennant, for, by means of; 
nonobstant, notwithstanding ; outre, besides ; par, by, through ; 
parmi, among (used only of an indeterminate number, repre- 
sented by a substantive plural, or by a collective noun) ; pendant, 
during, in the course of (denotes a shorter duration, a more 
limited period of time) ; pour, for ; pres, near, hard by (demands 
de after it — pres de, near: il demeure pres de Veglise; except 
in the familiar and colloquial style : il loge pres V arsenal) ; 
proche, near, close to (demands de after it) ; sans, without ; 
sauf, save (saving) ; selon, according to ; sous, under ; suivant, 
according to; sur, upon; touchant, concerning, about; vers, 
towards ; vis-a-vis, opposite, over against (demands de after it : 
nous etions vis-a-vis de Vile de Minor que ; except in the familiar 
and colloquial style : il loge vis-a-vis la nouvelle rue). 

h. Prepositive Locutions. 

A Vabri de, sheltered from, secure from ; aitenant a, con- 
tiguous to, adjoining, next; a cause de, on account of; a cote 
de, by, next to ; a convert de, sheltered from, secure from ; a 
I'egard de, with regard to ; a Ventour de, about ; a Vepreuve de, 



160 A GRAMMAR OP THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

proof against ; a V exception de, except, excepted ; a V exclusion 
de, excepting, exclusive of; a la faveur de, by means of (by the 
favor of) ; a fleur de, even with, level with ; a force de, by dint 
of; a Vinsu de, unknown to ; a la maniere de, a la mode de, 
after the fashion of, after the manner of; a moins de, under; a 
V opposite de, opposite, over against; a raison de, at the rate of; 
a la reserve de, except ; a rebours de, contrary to ; a rez de, even 
with, level with ; au deca de, en dega de, on this side (of) ; au 
dedans de, within, inside of; au dehors de, without, outside of; 
au dela de, on the other side (of), on that side (of), beyond, 
over ; au derriere de, behind ; au dessous de, below, under ; au 
dessus de, above ; au devant de (with alter — alter au devant de 
quelqu? un, to go to meet somebody, also to anticipate) ; au lieu 
de, instead of; au milieu de, amidst, in the middle of; au moyen 
de, by means of; au niveau de, even to, even with, on a level 
with ; au peril de, at the peril of ; aupres de, near (differs from 
pres de in this much, that it adds to the idea of proximity 
conveyed by the latter preposition, an idea of assiduity, of 
sentiment : cet enfant rfest Jieureux qu* aupres de sa mere, this 
child is only happy near (when with) its mother) ; tout aupres de, 
close to, hard by ; au prix de, at the cost of, at the expense of; 
au risque de, at the danger of ; autour de, around, about ; au 
tr avers de, through, across ; aux depens de, at the expense of; 
aux environs de, round about ; conformement a, in conformity 
with; en depit de, in spite of; en face de, facing; en presence 
de, in presence of; ensuite de, after; faute de, for want of; 
loin de, far from ; le long de, along ; par rapport a, with respect 
to; pour V amour de, for the love, for the sake of; quant a, as 
for, as to. 

Observations. 

I. Two prepositions may have one and the same complement 
in common ; we may accordingly say, for instance, with perfect 
propriety : il a ecrit pour et contre le parti pretre. 

II. Two prepositive locutions also may have one and the same 
complement in common, provided always that they happen to 
be construed both with the same preposition ; thus we may say, 
for instance, le pauvre diable fut etrilU en presence et en depit 
de ses amis. But if the two locutions happen to be construed 
with different prepositions, the proper complement must be 
given to each of them; thus, you must not say, for instance, 
a cause et par rapport a cette affaire, since a cause is construed 
with de, and not, like par rapport, with a. 

III. A preposition and a prepositive locution cannot have 



THE CONJUNCTION., 161 

one and the same complement in common, the proper comple- 
ment must be given to each of them ; thus, you must not say, 
for instance, juger suivant et conformement aux his, but juger 
suivant les his, et conformement a ce qu'elles prescrivent. 

IV. a. The prepositions a, de, and en, must be repeated 
before each complement : Vusurpateur doit sa couronne a la 
fraude et a la force, au parjure et a la violence ; il est doux de 
servir sa patrie et de contribuer a sa gloire ; on trouve les memes 
prejuges en Europe, en Asie, en Afrique, et jusqu'en Amerique. 

h. The other prepositions, more particularly those of them 
that have only one syllable, are repeated before complements 
of dissimilar meaning only : dans la jpaix et dans la guerre ; par 
la force et par Vadresse. But they are not repeated before 
complements of similar or synonymous import : par la force et 
la violence; avec courage et intrepidite ; a, travers les dangers 
et les obstacles. 

c. The preposition is never repeated (not even a, de, en), 
in the case of two (or several) nouns representing together one 
and the same object : vous avez sans doute lu la fable du renard 
et le corbeau. The expression here is elliptical ; it is as if the 
words were, la fable intitulee " Le renard et le corbeau" 



C. The Conjunction. 
a. List of the principal Conjunctions. 

D'ailleurs, besides ; ainsi, therefore, thus ; aussi, also, so, as ; 
car, for ; cependant, however ; comme, as ; consequemment, con- 
sequently ; done, then ; enfin, in short ; et, and : lorsque, when ; 
mais,but; neanmoins, nevertheless; ni,nov (ni-ni, neither — nor); 
or, now (in argumentation) ; ou, or (ou-ou, either — or) ; parceque 
(parce que) because {par ce que, in three separate words, means 
by what, from what, by that which, from that which : par ce 
qy?on voit tous les jours, from what we see every day) ; puisque, 
since ; quand, when ; que, that ; * quoique, though, although (guoi 

* We have already had occasion, in the chapters on the Adjective, on 
the Pronoun, and on the Verb (see pages 52, 53, 67, 68, 87, 93, 94, 149), to 
point out the most important of the varied uses of this truly Protean con- 
junction. The elementary nature and restricted limits of the present work, 
forbid an exhaustive treatise on this subject ; and we must therefore rest 
content here with a simple allusion to the vicarious use of que, as a substi- 
tute for certain conjunctive locutions compounded with que, and also to 
avoid the repetition of certain other conjunctions, as quand, lorsque, si, comme, 
quoique, &c. : quand on est riche et qu'on (instead of quand on) est genereux, 
wi ne manque pas d'amis; il ne vient pas, dest qu'i£ (instead of parce qvCil, or 



162 A GRAMMAR OP THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

que, in two separate words, means whatsoever) ; si, if ; sinon (si 
non), if not, else, or else ; toutefois, nevertheless, yet, however. 
Of these conjunctions only one (quoique) is construed with the 
subjunctive mode ; the conjunction que governs no mode ; it is 
the positive or doubtful sense of the verb preceding, which 
determines the use of either the indicative or the subjunctive 
mode of the verb of the dependent sentence. (See Chapter on 
the Verb, p. 148.) 

b. Conjunctive Locutions construed with the Subjunctive Mode. 

AJin que, to the end that ; a moins que, unless ; avant que, 
before ; au cas ]que, en cas que, in case that, if, if so should be 
that ; bien que, though ; de crainte que, de peur que, for fear, lest ; 
Dieu veuille que, Grod grant that ; encore que, although, though ; 
jusqu'a ce que, till ; loin que, far from ; malgre que, for all that 
(obsolete, and usually replaced now by quoique) ; nonobstant que, 
for all that, notwithstanding that ; non pas que, not that ; pose 
que, suppose que, suppose that ; pour que, that ; pourvu que, 
provided that ; sans que, without (without that) ; soit que, 
whether. — Compare also page 149, g. 

c. Conjunctive Locutions construed with the Infinitive* 

Afin de, in order to ; a moins de, h moins que de, unless ; 
avant de, avant que de, before, rather than ; au lieu de, instead 
of; au point de, to such an extent that, to such a pass that; de 
crainte de, de peur de, for fear of; faute de, for want of; jusqu'd, 
up to, up to the point of; loin de, far from; plutot que de, 
rather than. 

d. Conjunctive Locutions which exercise no influence on 

the Mode of the Verb. 

A cause que, because (obsolete, and usually replaced now by 
parce que) ; a condition que, provided, on condition that ; ainsi 

e'est parce qu'il) est malade, &c. ; and to the peculiar idiomatic expressions 
(Gallicisms) which it forms with the aid of the preposition de: e'est un 
devoir que d'obliger ses amis, it is a duty to oblige one's friends ; e'etait 
quelque chose que d ! avoir commence*, it was already something to have begun; 
c'est peu que de posseder des richesses, it is but little to possess wealth. 
However, custom sanctions the suppression of the que in locutions of the 
kind, and we may equally say, c'est peu de posseder des richesses, &c. — 
Compare also page 87, Remark 2. 

* These might with greater propriety, perhaps, be termed prepositive 
locutions, followed by the infinitive, instead of a noun, in the same way as 
certain prepositions are occasionally, such as pour, sans, &c. 



THE INTERJECTION. 163 

que, as, even as, so as ; apres que, after ; au lieu que, whereas ; 
au mains, at least; au reste (du reste), besides, moreover; 
aussitot que (sitot que), as soon as; au surplus, moreover; 
autant que, as much as, as far as ; d? autant que, whereas, for as 
much as ; c est poitrquoi, therefore, that is why ; par consequent 
(consequemment), consequently; d'alord que, as soon as; de 
fagon que (de sorte que), so that; depuis que, since, ever since; 
de plus, moreover ; des que, as soon as ; durant que, while, 
whilst (obsolete, and usually replaced now by pendant que) ; 
non-seul erne nt, not only, mats (mais encore, mais meme), but (but 
even) ; pendant que, while, whilst ; pour lors, then ; quand 
meme, even if, although ; selon que, suivant que, according as ; 
si Men que, so that ; si ce n'est que, unless, except that ; sur 
quoi, whereupon ; tandis que, whilst, whereas ; tant que, as 
long as. 

D. The Interjection. 

The principal interjections (and interjective locutions) of 
the French language, are : — 

Apostrophizing — 0, ; O monfilsl O my son! 

Appeal — Dieu ! grand Dieu ! juste ciel ! God ! Great 
God ! Just heaven ! 

Applause — Bravo ! well done ! bravo ! vivat ! long live ! 

Astonishment — Dialle ! the deuce ! peste ! dear me ! bless 
me ! Ion diei^! Lord ! misericorde ! goodness gracious me ! 

Aversion — Fi ! fi done ! fie ! fie upon ! 

Calling — He ! lio / Jiola ! hem I ho ! ho there ! I say ! hoy ! 

Checking — Tout beau ! gently ! not so fast ! halte la ! stop 

Derision — Oh! oh, oh! zest! oh! oh, oh! fiddlesticks! 
pshaw ! 

Disbelief — Chansons ! tar are I pooh! nonsense! fiddlesticks! 

Disgust — Pouah I fy ! faugh ! 

Encoring — Bis, lis I encore ! da capo ! 

Encouragement — Aliens ! courage ! come ! cheer up ! 

Grief — Helas ! eh ! alas ! 

Imprecation — Malediction de — / curses upon — ! peste (or 
la peste) de — / plague (or a plague) upon — ! 

Indignation — Foin de — / fy upon — ! 

Interrogation — He lien I well ! 

Joy — Ah ! Ion ! ah ! good ! 

Pain — Ah ! alii / aie ! ouf! ! oh ! oh dear ! 

Imposing silence — Chut ! paix ! silence! hush! 'st! peace! 
silence ! 



164 A GRAMMAR, OE THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

Surprise — Ha! oh! lah! ouais ! hey-day ! lack-a-day! 
dear ! 

Warning — Gore! prenez garde! make way! have-a-care ! 
take care I 



THE END. 



> 



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The BUILDING erected in HYDE PARK for the 

GREAT EXHIBITION of the WORKS of 

INDUSTRY of ALL NATIONS, 1851: 

Illustrated by 28 large folding Plates, embracing plans, elevations, sections, and 
details, laid down to a large scale from the working drawings of the Contractors, 
Messrs. Fox, Henderson, and Co., by Charles Downes, Architect ; with a 
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In 4 Parts, royal quarto, now complete, price £1. 10s., 
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*** This work has every measured detail so thoroughly made out as to enable 
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SIR JOHN RENNIE'S WORK 



THEORY, FORMATION, AND CONSTRUCTION 
OE BRITISH AND EOREIGN HARBOURS. 

Copious explanatory text, illustrated by numerous examples, 2 Vols., very neat 

in half-morocco. 

The history of the most ancient maritime nations affords con- 
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necessary to the extension of commerce and navigation, and to the 
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To this important subject, and more especially with reference to 
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tion of the British Government has of late years been worthily 
directed; and as this may be reasonably expected to enhance the 
value of any information which may add to our existing stock of 
knowledge in a department of Civil Engineering as yet but imperfectly 
understood, its contribution at the present time may become generally 
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The Plates are executed by the best mechanical Engravers ; the Views finely 
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NEW LIST OF WORKS. 



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HYDRAULIC FORMULAE, CO-EFFICIENTS, 
AND TABLES, 

For finding the Discharge of "Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, 
Short Tubes, Diaphragms, Mouth-pieces, Pipes, Drains, Streams, 
and Rivers. 

BY JOHN NEVILLE, 

ARCHITECT AND C. E., MEMBER ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY, MEMBER INST. C. E. 

IRELAND, MEMBER GEOLOGICAL SOC. IRELAND, COUNTY SURVEYOR OF 

LOUTH, AND OF THE COUNTY OF THE TOWN OF DROGHEDA. 

This work contains above 150 different hydraulic formulse (the 
Continental ones reduced to English measures), and the most ex- 
tensive and accurate Tables yet published for finding the mean 
velocity of discharge from triangular, quadrilateral, and circular 
orifices, pipes, and rivers ; with experimental results and co- 
efficients ; — effects of friction; of the velocity of approach; and of 
curves, bends, contractions, and expansions ; — the best form of 
channel; — the drainage effects of long and short weirs, 
and weir-basins; — extent of back-water from weirs; contracted 
channels; — catchment basins; — hydrostatic and hydraulic pres- 
sure; — water-power, &c. 



TREDGOLD ON THE STEAM ENGINE. 

Published in 74 Parts, price 2s. 6d. each, in 4to, illustrated by very numerous 
engravings and wood-cuts, a new and much extended edition, now complete in 
3 vols, bound in 4, in elegant half-morocco, price Nine Guineas and a Half. 

THE STEAM ENGINE, 

IN ITS PROGRESSIVE AND PRESENT STATE OF IMPROVEMENT; 

Practically and amply elucidating, in every detail, its modifications 
and applications, its duties and consumption of fuel, with an 
investigation of its principles and the proportions of its parts for 
efficiency and strength ; including examples of British and American 
recently constructed engines, with details, drawn to a large scale. 

The well-known and highly appreciated Treatise, Mr. Tredgold's 
national Work on the Steam Engine, founded on scientific principles 
and compiled from the practice of the best makers — showing also 
easy rules for construction, and for the calculation of its power in 
all cases — has commanded a most extensive sale in the several 
English editions, and in Translations on the Continent. These 
editions being now out of print, the proprietor has been induced to 



JOHN WEALE'S 



TREDGOLD ON THE STEAM ENGINE. 

enlarge and extend the present edition by practical examples of all 
kinds, with the most recent improvements in the construction and 
practical operations of the steam engine both at home and abroad. 

The work is divided into the sections named below, either of 
which may be purchased separately : working engineers will be 
thus enabled to select those portions which more especially apply to 
the objects upon which they may be respectively employed. 

Several scientific men, extensively and practically employed, have 
contributed original and really practical papers of the utmost utility ; 
by which the value of this extended edition is much increased. A 
copious Index for reference is added. 

Division A. Locomotive Engines, 41 plates and 55 wood-cuts, complete, making 
Vol. I. In half-morocco binding, price £2. 12s. 6d. 

Division B. Marine Engines, British and American, numerous plates and wood- 
cuts, making Vol. II. ; bound in 2 vols, half-morocco, price £3. 13s. 6d. 

Division C to G. making Vol. III., and completing the work, comprising 
Stationary Engines, Pumping Engines, Engines for Mills, and several examples 
of Boilers employed in the British Steam Navy ; in half-morocco, price 
£3. 13s. 6d. 

LIST OF PLATES. 
DIVISION A. LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES. 



Elevation of the 8 -wheeled locomotive 
engine and tender, the Iron Duke, 
on the Great Western Railway. 

Longitudinal section of ditto. 

Plan, ditto. 

Transverse sections, ditto. 

Details of ditto : transverse section 
through working gear, transverse 
section and end view of tender ; plan 
and section of feed-pump ; plan and 
elevation of hand-pump; details of 
inside framing, centre axle, driving 
axle-box, regulation-valve, centre- 
beam stay, &c. 

Elevation of Crampton's patent loco- 
motive engine and tender. 

Longitudinal section of ditto. 

Plan of ditto. 

Transverse sections of ditto. 

Elevation of the Pyracmon 6-wheeled 
goods' engine on the Great Western 
Railway. 

Half-plan of the working gear of ditto. 

Elevation of a portion of the working 
gear of ditto. 

Diagrams, by J. Sewell, L. E., of re- 
sistances per ton of the train ; and 
portion of engines of the class of the 



Great Britain locomotive, includ- 
ing tender, with various loads and at 
various velocities ; also of the ad- 
ditional resistance in fts. per ton of 
the train, when the engine is loaded, 
to be added to the resistance per ton 
of the engine and tender when un- 
loaded. 

Side and front elevation of an express 
carriage engine, introduced on the 
Eastern Counties Railway by James 
Samuel, C.E., Resident Engineer. 

Longitudinal and cross section of ditto. 

Plan of ditto ; with plan and section of 
cylinders, details and sections, piston 
full size. 

Elevation of the outside-cylinder tank 
engine made by Sharpe Brothers & 
Co., of Manchester, for the Man- 
chester and Birmingham Railway. 

Section of cylinder and other parts, 
and part elevation of ditto. 

Longitudinal section of ditto. 

Plan of ditto. 

Transverse sections of both ends, with 
sectional parts. 

Mr. Edward Woods' experiments on the 
several sections of old and modern 



NEW LIST OF WORKS. 



TREDGOLD ON THE STEAM ENGINE. 



valves of locomotive engines, — viz. 
fig. 1. stroke commences; fig. 2, 
steam-port open ; fig. 3, steam-port 
open ; fig. 4, steam-port open ; fig. 5, 
stroke completed, steam cut off, 
exhaustion commences ; fig. 6, stroke 
commences; fig. 7, steam-port full 
open; fig. 8, steam cut off; fig. 9, 
exhaustion commences; fig. 10, steam 
completed. 

Ditto, drawn and engraved to half-size : 
fig. 1, old valve, -^-inch lap; fig. 2, 
f -inch lap ; fig. 3, J -inch lap ; fig. 4, 
-f-inch lap, Gray's patent; fig. 5, 
1-inch lap. 

Elevation of a six-wheeled locomotive 
engine and tender, No. 15, con- 
structed hy Messrs. Tayleur, Vulcan 
Foundry, Warrington, for the Cale- 
donian Railway. 

Longitudinal section of ditto. 

Plan of ditto, engine and tender, with 
cylindrical part of boiler removed. 

Elevations of fire-box, section of fire- 
box, section of smoke-box, of ditto. 

Elevations and sectional parts of ditto. 

Sectional parts, half-plan of working 
gear, ditto. 

Elevation of Messrs. Robert Stephenson 



and Co/s six-wheeled patent loco- 
motive engine and tender. 

Longitudinal section of ditto. 

Plan and details of Stephenson's patent 
engine. 

Section of fire-box, section of smoke- 
box, front and back elevations of the 
same. 

Plan of a six-wheeled engine on the 
Birmingham and Shrewsbury Rail- 
way, constructed by Messrs. Bury, 
Curtis, and Kennedy, Liverpool. 

Longitudinal section of ditto. 

Sectional elevation of the smoke-box, & 

Sectional elevation of the fire-box of 
ditto. 

Elevation of the locomotive engine and 
tender, Plews, adapted for high 
speeds, constructed by Messrs. R. & 
W. Hawthorn, of Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne, for the York, Newcastle, and 
Berwick Railway Company. 

Longitudinal section of ditto. This 
section is through the fire-box, boiler, 
and smoke-box, showing the tubes, 
safety-valve, whistles, steam and blast 
pipes, &c. 

Plan of ditto. 

Plan of the working gear, details, &c, 



Forty-one plates and fifty-five wood engravings. 



DIVISION B. MARINE ENGINES, &C. 



Two plates, comprising figures 1, 2, 
and 3, Properties of Steam. 

Plan of H. M. screw steam frigate 
Dauntless, constructed by Robert 
Napier, Esq. 

Longitudinal elevation and transverse 
section of ditto. 

Longitudinal section at AB on plan, 
longitudinal section at C D on plan 
of ditto. 

Engines of H. M. steam ship Terrible, 
constructed by Messrs. Maudslay, 
Sons, and Field, on the double- 
cylinder principle. Longitudinal sec- 
tions of engines. 

Transverse section and end view of ditto. 

Transverse section through boilers of 
ditto. 

Plan of engines, showing also bunkers, 
paddles, &c. 



Oscillating engines of the Peninsular 
and Oriental Company's steam vessel 
Ariel, constructed by John Penn 
and Sons. Longitudinal section. 

Section at engines of ditto. 

Section at boiler of ditto. 

Plan at boiler of ditto. 

Section at air-pump, and at cylinder. 

Annular cylinder engines of' the iron 
steam vessels Princess Mary and 
Princess Maude, constructed by 
Maudslay, Sons, and Field. Longi- 
tudinal section. 

Transverse section at engines of ditto. 

Section at boilers of ditto. 

Plan of engines of ditto, showing 
bunkers, paddles, &c. 

Plan of engines of II. M. steam vessel 
Simoom, constructed by James "Watt 
& Co., of London and Soho. 



10 



JOHN WEALED 



TREDGOLD ON THE STEAM ENGINE. 



Longitudinal section of the Simoom. 

Cross section of ditto. 

Engine of the Red Rover, side view 
and plan. 

Longitudinal section of ditto. 

Cross sections of ditto. 

Sheer draught and plans of vessel. 

Plan of the engine of H. M... steam frigate 
Phoenix. 

Longitudinal section of engine of ditto. 

Cross section of ditto. 

Engine of the Ruby steam vessel, ele- 
vation and plan. 

Sheer draught and plan of vessel. 

Plan of engine of the Wilberforce, 
Hull and London packet. 

Cross section of ditto and vessel. 

Longitudinal section of engines of ditto. 

Elevation of engines of ditto. 

Engines of the Berenice, Hon. E. I. 
Co.'s steam vessel. 

Section of ditto. 

Sheer draught and plan, stern view, 
and body plan of vessel. 

View of the Berenice, whilst at sea. 

Boilers of H. M. ships Hermes, Spit- 
fire, and Firefly. 

Kingston's valves, as fitted on board 
sea-going vessels for blow-off injec- 
tion, and hand-pump sea valves. 

Boilers of H. M. steam vessel African. 

Morgan's paddle-wheels, as fitted in 
H. M. S. Medea. 

Side elevation of ditto. 

Plans of upper and lower decks of 
ditto. 

Sheer draught and profile of ditto. 

Morgan and Seaward's paddle-wheels, 
comparatively. 

Positions of a float of a radiating pad- 
dle-wheel in a vessel in motion, and 
positions of a float of a vertically 
acting wheel in a vessel in motion. 

Cycloidal paddle-wheels. 

Sailing of steamers in five points from 
courses. 

Experimental steaming and sailing of 
the Caledonia, Vanguard, Asia, 
and Medea. 

Engines of H. M. steam ship Megger a. 

Engine of the steamboat New World, 



T. F. Secor & Co., Engineers, New 
York. Elevation and section. 

Elevations of cylinder and crank ends. 

Steam cylinders, plans, and sections. 

Details. 

Several sections of details. 

Details and sections. 

Details of parts. 

Plans and sections of condenser, bed- 
plates, air-pump bucket, &c. 

Details and sections, injection valves. 

Details, plan and elevation of beams, 
&c. 

Details, sections of parts, boilers, &c. 
of the steam boat New World. 

Sections, details, and paddles. 

Engines of the U.S. mail steamers Ohio 
and Georgia. Longitudinal section. 

Elevations and cross sections of ditto. 

Details of steam-chests, side-pipes, 
valves, and valve gear of ditto. 

Section of valves, and plan of piston of 
ditto. 

Boilers of ditto, sections of ditto. 

Engine of the U. S. steamer Water- 
Witch. Sectional elevation. 

Steam-chests and cylinders of ditto. 

Boilers, sections, &c. of ditto. 

Boilers of the U.S. steamer Powhatan. 

Front view and sections of ditto. 

Elevation of the Pittsburg and Cin- 
cinnati American packet Buckeye 
State. 

Bow view, stern view. 

Plan of the Buckeye State. 

Model, &c. of ditto, wheel-house frame, 
cross section at wheel-house, and 
body plan. 

Plan and side elevation of ditto. 

Sheer draught and plan, with the body 
plan, of the U. S. steam frigate 
Saranac 

Longitudinal section of ditto, cross sec- 
tion. 

Engines of the U. S. steamer SusauE- 

HANNA. 

Elevation of the U. S. Pacific steam 

packet engine. 
Plan of ditto. 

Boilers of ditto, end views. 
Ditto ditto. 



Eighty-five engravings and fifty -one wood-cuts. 



NEW LIST OF WORKS. 



11 



TREDGOLD ON THE STEAM ENGINE. 
DIVISION C. TO G., FORMING VOL. III. 



STATIONARY ENGINES, PUMPING 

Side elevation of pumping engine, U. S. 
dock, New York. 

End elevation of ditto. 

Elevation and section j)f the pumps, 
ditto. — 2 plates. 

B-oilers of pumping engines, ditto. 

Boilers, Details, &c. of pumping engines, 
ditto. 

Plan of the boilers, ditto. 

Isometrical projection of a rectangular 
boiler. 

Plan and two sections of a cylindrical 
boiler. 

Brunton's apparatus forfeeding furnace- 
fires by means of machinery. 

Parts of a high-pressure engine with a 
4-passaged cock. 

Section of a double-acting condensing 
engine. 

Section of a common atmospheric en- 
gine. 

On the construction of pistons. 

Section of steam pipes and valves. 

Apparatus for opening and closing steam 
passages. 

Parallel motions. — 2 plates. 

Plan and elevation of an atmospheric 
engine. 

Elevation of a single-acting Boulton 
and Watt engine. 

Double-acting engine for raising water. 

Double-acting engine for impelling 
machinery. 

Maudslay's portable condensing engine 
for impelling machinery. 

Indicator for measuring the force of 
steam in the cylinder, and diagrams 
of forms of vessels. 

Section of a steam vessel with its boiler, 
in two parts — diagrams showing fire- 
places — longitudinal section through 
boiler and fire-places. 

Isometrical projection of a steam-boat 
engine. 

Plan and section of a steam-boat engine. 

Ten horse-power engine, constructed 
by W. Fairbalrn and Co. — 4 plates. 

Forty-five horse-power engine, con- 
structed by W. Fairbairn & Co. — 
3 plates. 

Plan and section of boiler for a 20-horse 



ENGINES, MARINE BOILERS, &C. 

engine, at the manufactory of Whii- 

worth & Co., Manchester. 
Messrs. Hague's double-acting cylinder, 

with slides, &c. 
Sixty-five-inch cylinder, erected by 

Maudslay, Sons, and Field, at the 

Chelsea Water-works. — 5 plates. 
Beale's patented rotary engine. 
Double-story boilers of H.M.S. Devas- 
tation, 4*00 H. P. 
Refrigerator feed and brine pumps. 
Feed and brine apparatus, as fitted on 

board the West India Royal Mail 

Company's ships. 
Boilers of H. M. steam sloop Basilisk, 

400 H. P. 
Boilers of the Singapore, 470 H. P., 

Peninsular and Oriental Company. 
Original double-story boilers of the 

Great W t estern. 
Telescopic chimnev, or sliding funne^, 

of H. M. ship Hydra, 220 H. P. 
Seaward's patent brine and feed valves. 
Boilers of H. M. mail packet Undine, 

(Miller, Ravenhill, & Co.) 100 H. P. 
Cross sections of engines of H. M. mail 

packet Undine. 
Longitudinal elevation of ditto. 
Brine-pumps as fitted on board H.M.S. 

Medea, 220 H. P. (Maudslay, Sons, 

and Field.) 
Boilers of H.M. S. Hydra, 220 H. P. 
Plan of the four boilers, with the sup- 
plementary steam-chests and shut-off 

valves, of the Avenger. 
Boilers of H. M. steam ship Niger, 400 

H. P., fitted by Maudslay, Sons, and 

Field. 
Experimental boiler, Woolwich Yard. 
Boilers of H. M. S. Terrible, 800 H. P. 

(Maudslay, Sons,' and Field.) 
Boilers of the Minx and Teaser, 100 

H. P. (transferred to Wasp.) 
Boilers of the Samson, 450 H. P. 
Daniel's pyrometer, full size. 
Boilers of the Desperate, 400 H. P. 

(Maudslay, Sons, and Field.) 
Boilers of the Niger (2nd plate). 
Boilers of H.M.S. Basilisk (2nd 

plate). 
Boilers of the Undine. 



12 



JOHN WEALE'S 



TREDGOLD ON THE STEAM ENGINE. 



Boilers of the Royal Mail steam ships 
Asia and Africa, 768 H. P., con- 
structed by R. Napier, Glasgow. 

Longitudinal and midship sections of 
ditto. 

Boilers of H.M.S. La Hogue, 450 H.P. 
(Seaward & Co.) 

H.M.S. Sidon, 560 H.P. Plan of 
telescope funnel. 

Boilers of H. M. S. Brisk, 250 H. P. 

Copper boilers for H. M. S. Sans- 
pareil, 350 H.P. (James Watt & 
Co.) 

American marine boilers, designed and 
executed by C. W. Copeland, Esq., 
of New York, as fitted on board the 
American packets. 

Midship section of the hull of the steam 
packet Pacific, New York and 
Liverpool line. 

Elevation of pumping engines of the 
New Orleans Water- works, U. S., ar- 
ranged and drawn by E. W. Smith, 
Engineer, constructed at the Allaire 
Works, New York. 

Elevation of pumps and valves, chests, 
gearing , &c. 

Elevation at steam cylinder end. 

General plan of a turbine water-wheel 
in operation at Lowell, Massachusets, 
U.S., by J. B. Francis, C.E. 

Elevation of ditto. Section of ditto. 

Plan of the floats and guide curves, 
ditto. 



Large self-acting surfacing and screw- 
propeller lathe, by Joseph Whitworth 
& Co., Manchester. 

Longitudinal section, showing arrange- 
ment of engine-room for disc engine 
applied to a screw propeller, and 
Bishop's disc engine, by G. & J. 
Rennie, with details. 

Arrangement of engine-room for engines 
of 60 horse-power, for driving pro- 
pellers of H. M. steam vessels Rey- 
nard and Cruiser, constructed by 
Messrs. Rennie. Longitudinal sec- 
tion and engine-room. 

Ditto. Transverse section at boilers 
and at engines. , 

Very elaborate diagrams showing ex- 
periments and results of various pad- 
dle-wheels. — 8 plates. 

Steam flour-mills at Smyrna, con- 
structed by Messrs. Joyce & Co. 
Double cylinder pendulous condens- 
ing engine, side elevation. 

Side elevation, horizontal plan, ditto. 

Longitudinal section. 

Horizontal plan of mill-house and 
boilers. 

Transverse section through engine- 
house and mill. 

Boilers, longitudinal and transverse 
sections, front view. 

Section through mill- stones, elevation 
of upper part, section of lower part, 
plan of hopper, &c. 



SUMMARY OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Vol. I. Locomotive Engines 

II. Marine Engines 

III. Stationary Engines, Pumping Engines, Engines 
for Flour-Mills, Examples of Boiler3, &c, &c. . 

Total 



Plates. 
41 
85 



100 



226 



Wood-cuts. 
55 
51 



58 
164 



FULL-LENGTH PORTRAIT OF 

HENRY CAVENDISH, F.R.S. 

Some few India paper proofs, before tlie letters, of this celebrated 
Philosopher and Chemist, to be had, price 2s. 6e? t 



NEW LIST OF WORKS. 



13 



HINTS 



YOUNCt ARCHITECTS: 

COMPRISING 

ADVICE TO THOSE WHO, WHILE YET AT SCHOOL ARE DESTINED 
TO THE PROFESSION; 

TO SUCH AS, HAYING PASSED THEIR PUPILAGE, ARE ABOUT TO TRAVEL; 

AND TO THOSE WHO, HAVING COMPLETED THEIR EDUCATION, 
ARE ABOUT TO PRACTISE: 

TOGETHER WITH 

A MODEL SPECIFICATION: 

INVOLVING A GREAT VARIETY OF INSTRUCTIVE AND SUGGESTIVE MATTER, 
CALCULATED TO FACILITATE THEIR PRACTICAL OPERATIONS; 

AND TO DIRECT THEM IN THEIR CONDUCT, AS THE RESPONSIBLE 
AGENTS OF THEIR EMPLOYERS, 

AND AS THE RIGHTFUL JUDGES OF A CONTRACTOR'S DUTY. 

By GEOKGE WIGHTWICK, Architect. 



CONTENTS : — 



Preliminary Hints to Young Archi- 
tects on the Knowledge of 
Drawing. 
On Serving his Time. 
On Travelling. 
His Plate on the Door. 
Orders, Plan-drawing. 
On his Taste, Study of Interiors. 
Interior Arrangements. 
Warming and Ventilating. 
House Building, Stabling. 
Cottages and Villas. 
Model Specification : — 

General Clauses. 

Foundations. 

Well. 

Artificial Rundations. 

Brickwork. 

Rubble Masonry with Brick 
Mingled. 

Extra cloth boards, price 8«« 



Model Specification : 

Stone-cutting. 

, Grecian or Italian only. 

, Gothic only. 

Miscellaneous. 

Slating. 

Tiling. 

Plaster and Cement- work. 

Carpenters' Work. 

Joiners' Work. 

Iron and Metal-work. 

Plumbers' Work. 

Drainage. 

Well-digging. 

Artificial Levels, Concrete, 
Foundations, Piling and 
Planking, Paving, Vaulting, 
Bell-hanging, iPlumbing, and 
Building generally. 



n 



JOHN WEALE'S 



ASTRONOMICAL ANNUAL FOR 1854. 

COMPRISING 

I. The Ephemerides. 

II. On the Cometic Mysteries, by Professor A. Crestadora, with Plates. 
III. Notice of the Biography of J. S. Bailly. 
Price Is. 



THE WORK ON 

BRIDGES OF STONE, IRON, TIMBER, 
AND WIRE. 

In 4 Vols., bound in 3, described in the larger Catalogue of Publications ; to 
which the following is the Supplement, now completed, entitled 

SUPPLEMENT TO " THE THEORY, PRACTICE, AND 

ARCHITECTURE OF BRIDGES OF STONE, IRON, 

TIMBER, WIRE, AND SUSPENSION," 

In one large 8vo volume, with explanatory Text and 68 Plates, comprising 
details and measured dimensions, in Parts as follows : — 



Part I. 




6s. 


m n. . 




. . 6s. 


„ III. . 




. 6s. 


„ IV. . . 


% . 


. 10s. 


„ V. &VI. . 




. 205. 



Bound in half-morocco, uniform with the larger work, price 21, 10s., or in a 
different pattern at the same price. 



LIST OF PLATES. 



Cast-iron girder bridge, Ashford, Rye 
and Hastings Railway. 

Details, ditto. 

Elevation and plan of truss of St. 
Mary's Viaduct, Cheltenham Rail- 
way. 

Iron road bridge over the Railway at 
Chalk Farm. 



Mr. Fairbairn's hollow-girder bridge 

at Blackburn. 
Waterford and Limerick Railway truss 

bridge. 
Hollow-girder bridge over the River 

Medlock. 
Railway bridge over laguues of 

Venice. 



NEW LIST OF WORKS. 



BRIDGES OF STONE, &C. 



Viaduct at Beangency, Orleans and 

Tours Railway. 
Oblique cast-iron bridge, on the system 

of M. Polonceau, over the Canal St. 

Denis. 
Blackwall Extension Railway, Com- 
mercial Road bridge. 
Ditto, enlarged elevation of outside 

girders, with details. 
Ditto, details. 
Ditto, ditto, and sections. 
Ditto, ditto, ditto. 

Richmond and Windsor main line, 

bridge over the Thames. 
Ditto, details. 
Ditto, ditto, and sections. 
Orleans and Bordeaux Railway bridge. 
Ditto, sections and details. 
Rouen and Havre Railway timber bridge. 
Ditto, details. 
Ditto, ditto, and sections. 
Viaduct of the Valley of Malauncey, 

near Rouen. 
Hoop-iron suspension bridge over the 

Seine at Suresne, department de la 

Seine. 
Hoop-iron suspension foot bridge at 

Abainville. 
Suspension bridge over the Douro, iron 

wire suspension cables. 
Ditto, details. 
Glasgow and South -Western Railway 

bridge over the water of Ayr. 
Ditto, sections and details. 
Plan of the cities of Ofen and Pesth. 
Sections and soundings of the River 

Danube. 
Longitudinal section of framing. 
No. 1 coffer-dam. 
Transverse framing of coffer-dam. 
Sections of Nos. 2 and 3 of coffer-dam. 
Plan of No. 3 coffer-dam and ice- 
breakers. 
Plan and elevation of the construction 

of the scaffolding, and the manner of 

hoisting the chains. 



Line of soundings, — dam longitudinal 

sections. 
Dam sections. 

Plan and elevation of the Pesth suspen- 
sion bridge. 
Elevation of Nos. 2 and 3 coffer-dams. 
End view of ditto. 
Transverse section of No. 2 ditto. 
Transverse section of coffer-dam, plan 

of the 1st course, and No. 3 pier. 
Vertical section of Nos. 2 and 3 piers, 

showing vertical bond-stones. 
Vertical cross section of ditto. 
Front elevation of Nos. 2 and 3 piers. 
End elevation of ditto. 

Details of chains. Ditto. 

Ditto and plan of nut, bolt, and retain- 

ing-links. 
Plan and elevation of roller-frames. 
Elevation and section of main blocks 

for raising the chains. 
Ditto, longitudinal section of fixture 

pier, showing tunnel for chains. 
Plan and elevation of retaining-plates, 

showing machine for boring holes for 

retaining-bars. 
Retaining link and bar. 
Longitudinal plan and elevation of cast- 
iron beam with truss columns. 
Longitudinal elevation and section of 
. trussing, &c. 

Plan of pier at level of footpath. 
Detail of cantilevers for supporting the 

balconies round the towers. 
Elevation and section of cantilevers. 
Detail of key-stone & Hungarian arms. 
Front elevation of toll-houses and wing 

walls. 
Longitudinal elevation of toll-house, 

fixture pier, wing wall, and pedestal. 
Vertical section of retaining-piers. 
Section at end of fixture pier, showing 

chain-holes. 
Lamp and pedestal at entrance of 

bridge. 
Lamp and pedestal at end of wing walls. 



Separately sold from the above in a volume, price half-bound in morocco £l.l2s. 

An ACCOUNT, with Illustrations, of the SUSPENSION 

BRIDGE ACROSS the RIVER DANUBE, 

BY WILLIAM TIERNEY CLARK, C.E., F. R. S. 

With Forty Engravings. 



16 



JOHN WEALE'S 



THE ENGINEER'S AND CONTRACTOR'S 

POCKET BOOK, 

WITH AN ASTRONOMICAL ALMANACK, 

REVISED FOR 1854. In morocco tuck, price 6s. 



CONTENTS. 



Air, Air in motion (or wind), and wind- 
mills. 

Alloys for bronze ; Miscellaneous alloys 
and compositions ; Table of alloys ; 
Alloys of copper and zinc, and of 
copper and tin. 

Almanack for 1852 and 1853. 

American railroads ; steam vessels. 

Areas of the segments of a circle. 

Armstrong (R.), his experiment on 
boilers. 

Astronomical phenomena. 

Ballasting. 

Barlow's (Mr.) experiments. 

Barrel drains and culverts. 

Bell-hanger's prices. 

Blowing a blast engine. 

Boilers and engines, proportions of; 
Furnaces and chimneys ; Marine. 

Bossut's experiments on the discharge 
of water by horizontal conduit or 
conducting pipes. 

Brass, weight of a lineal foot of, round 
and square. 

Breen (Hugh), his almanack. 

Bricks. 

Bridges and viaducts ; Bridges of brick 
and stone; Iron bridges; Timber 
bridges. 

Burt's (Mr.) agency for the sale of pre- 
served timber. 

Cask and malt gauging. 

Cast-iron binders or joints; Columns, 
formulae of; Columns or cylinders, 
Table of diameter of; Hollow co- 
lumns, Table of the diameters and 
thickness of metal of; Girders, prices 
of; Stancheons, Table of, strength 
of. 

Chairs, tables, weights, &c. 

Chatburn limestone. 

Chimneys, &c, dimensions of. 

Circumferences, &c. of circles. 

Coal, evaporating power of, and results 
of coking. 

Columns, cast-iron, weight or pressure 
of, strength of. 



Comparative values between the pre- 
sent and former measures of capacity. 

Continuous bearing. 

Copper pipes, Table of the weight of, 
Table of the bore and weight of cocks 
for. 

Copper, weight of a lineal foot of, round 
and square. 

Cornish pumping engines. 

Cotton mill ; Cotton press. 

Current coin of the principal commercial 
countries, with their weight and re- 
lative value in British money. 

Digging, well-sinking, &c. 

Docks, dry, at Greenock. 

Draining by steam power. 

Dredging machinery. 

Dwarf, Table of experiments with 
H. M. screw steam tender. 

Earthwork and embankments, Tables 
of contents, &c. 

Experiments on rectangular bars of 
malleable iron, by Mr. Barlow; on 
angle and T iron bars, 

Fairbairn (Wm.), on the expansive 
action of steam, and a new construc- 
tion of expansion valves for condens- 
ing steam engines. 

Feet reduced to links and decimals. 

Fire-proof flooring. 

Flour-mills. 

Fluids in motion. 

Francis (J. B., of Lowell, Massachusets), 
his water-wheel. 

French measures. 

Friction. 

Fuel, boilers, furnaces, &c. 

Furnaces and boilers. 

Galvanized tin iron sheets in London 
or Liverpool, list of gauges and 
weights of. 

Gas-tubing composition. 

G]ynn (Joseph), F. R. S., on turbine 
water-wheels. 

Hawksby (Mr., of Nottingham), his 
experiments on pumping water. 

Heat, Tables of the effects of. 



NEW LIST OF WORKS. 



17 



THE ENGINEER S AND CONTRACTOR S POCKET BOOK. 



Hexagon heads and nuts for bolts, pro- 
portional sizes and weights of. 

Hick's rule for calculating the strength 
of shafts. 

Hodgkinson's (Eaton) experiments. 

Hungerford Bridge. 

Hydraulics. 

Hydrodynamics. 

Hydrostatic press. 

Hydrostatics. 

Imperial standard measures of Great 
Britain; Iron. 

Indian Navy, ships of war, and other 
vessels. 

Institution of Civil Engineers, List of 
Members of the, corrected to March 
15, 1852. 

Iron balls, weight of cast ; bars, angle 
and T, weight of; castings; experi- 
ments ; hoop, weight of 10 lineal 
feet ; lock gates ; roofs ; tubes for 
locomotive and marine boilers ; 
weights of rolled iron. 

Ironmonger's prices. 

Just's analysis of Mr. Dixon Robinson's 
limestone. 

Latitudes andlongitudes of the principal 
observatories. 

Lead pipes, Table of the weights of. 

Leslie (J.), C.E. 

Lime, mortar, cements, concrete, &c. 

Limestone, analysis of. 

Liquids in motion. 

Locomotive engines ; Table showing 
the speed of an engine. 

Log for a sea-going steamer, form of. 

Machines and tools, prices of. 

Mahogany, experiments made on the 
strength of Honduras. [wheels. 

Mallet's experiments on overshot 

Marine boilers ; engines. 

Masonry and stone-work. 

Massachusets railroads. 

Mensuration, epitome of. 

Metals, lineal expansion of. 

Morin's (Col.) experiments. 

Motion ; motion of water in rivers. 

Nails, weight and length. 

Navies — of the United States; Indian 
Navy ; Oriental and Peninsular Com- 
pany; British Navy; of Austria; 
Denmark ; Naples ; Spain ; France ; 
Germanic Confederation ; Holland ; 
Portugal ; Prussia ; Sardinia ; Swe- 



den and Norway; Turkey; Russia 
Royal West India Mail Company's 
fleet. 

New York, State of, railroads. 

Numbers, Table of the fourth and fifth 
power of. 

Paddle-wheel steamers. 

Pambour (Count de) and Mr. Parkes' 
experiments on boilers for the pro- 
duction of steam. 

Peacocke's (R. A.) hydraulic experi- 
ments. 

Pile-driving. 

Pitch of wheels. Table to find the dia- 
meter of a wheel for a given pitch of 
teeth. 

Plastering. 

Play fair (Dr. Lyon). 

Preserved timber. 

Prices for railways, paid by H. M. 
Office of Works ; smith and founder's 
work. 

Prony's experiments. 

Proportions of steam engines and boil- 
ers. 

Pumping engines ; pumping water by 
steam power. 

Rails, chairs, &c., Table of. 

Railway, American, statistics; railway 
and building contractor's prices ; car- 
riages. 

Rain, Tables of. 

Ramraell's (T. W.) plan and estimate 
for a distributing apparatus by fixed 
pipes and hydrants. 

Rennie's (Mr. Geo.) experiments ; (the 
late J.) estimate. 

Roads, experiments upon carriages tra- 
velling on ordinary roads ; influence 
of the diameter of the wheels ; 
Morin's experiments on the traction 
of carriages, and the destructive ef- 
fects which they produce upon roads. 

Robinson (Dixon), his experiments and 
material. 

Roofs ; covering of roofs. 

Ropes, Morin's recent experiments on 
the stiffness of ropes ; tarred ropes ; 
dry white ropes. 

Saw-mill. 

Screw steamers. 

Sewage manures. 

Sewers, castings for* their estimates, 
&c. 



18 



JOHN WEALE'S 



THE ENGINEER'S AND CONTRACTOR'S POCKET BOOK. 



Signs and abbreviations used in arith- 
metic and mathematical expressions. 

Slating. 

Sleepers, quantity in cubic feet, &c. 

Smeaton's experiments on wind-mills. 

Smith and founder's prices. 

Specific gravity, Table of. 

Steam dredging ; Navigation ; Tables 
of the elastic force ; Table of Vessels 
of war, of America ; of England ; of 
India ; and of several other maritime 
nations. 

Steel, weight of round steel. 

Stone, per lb., stone, qr., cwt., and ton, 
&c, Table of the price. 

Stones. 

Strength of columns ; Materials of con- 
struction. 

Sugar-mill. 

Suspension aqueduct over the Alleghany 
River ; Bridges over ditto. 

Table of experiments with H. M. screw 
steam tender Dwarf ; of gradients ; 
iron roofs ; latent heats ; paddle- 
wheel steamers of H. M. Service and 
Post-Office Service; pressure of the 
wind moving at given velocities; 
prices of galvanized tinned iron 
tube ; specific heats ; the cohesive 
power of bodies ; columns, posts, &c, 
of timber and iron ; the comparative 
strength, size, weight, and price of 
iron-wire rope (A. Smith's), hempen 
rope, and iron chain ; corresponding 
velocities with heads of water as 
high as 50 ft., in feet and decimals ; 
dimensions of the principal parts of 
marine engines ; effects of heat on 
different metals; elastic force of 
steam; expansion and density of 
water; expansion of solids by in- 
creasing the temperature; expan- 
sion of water by heat ; heights cor- 
responding to different velocities, in 
French metres; lineal expansion of 
metals ; motion of water, and quan- 
tities discharged by pipes of dif- 
ferent diameters; power of metals, 
&c; pressure, &c, of wind-mill sails; 
principal dimensions of 28 merchant 
steamers with screw propellers ; of 
steamers with paddle-wheels; pro- 
gressive, dilatation of metals by heat, 
&c. ; proportion of real to theoretica 



discharge through thin-lipped ori- 
fices; quantities of water, in cubic 
feet, discharged over a weir per 
minute, hour, &c. ; relative weight 
and strength of ropes and chains ; 
results of experiments on the friction 
of unctuous surfaces ; scantlings of 
posts of oak ; size and weight of iron 
laths ; weight in lbs. required to crush 
1^-inch cubes of stone, and other 
bodies; weight of a lineal foot of 
cast-iron pipes, in lbs. ; weight of a 
lineal foot of flat bar iron, in lbs. ; 
weight of a lineal foot of square and 
round bar iron ; weight of a super- 
ficial foot of various metals, in lbs. ; 
weight of modules of elasticity of 
various metals ; velocities of paddle- 
wheels of different diameters, in feet 
per minute, and British statute miles, 
per hour ; the dimensions, cost, and 
price per cubic yard, of ten of the 
principal bridges or viaducts built 
for railways ; the height of the boil- 
ing point at different heights ; — to 
find the diameter of a wheel for a 
given pitch of teeth, &c. 

Tables of squares, cubes, square and 
cube roots. 

Teeth of wheels. 

Temperature, the relative indications of, 
by different thermometers. 

Thermometers, Table of comparison of 
different. 

Timber for carpentry and joinery pur- 
poses; Table of the properties of 
different kinds of. 

Tin plates, Table of the weight of. 

Tools and machines, prices of. 

Traction, Morin's experiments on. 

Tredgold's Rules for Hydraulics, from 
Eytelwein's Equation. 

Turbines, Report on, by Joseph Glynn 
and others. 

Values of different materials. 

Water-wheels. 

Watson's (H. H.) analysis of limestone 
from the quarries at Chatburn. 

Weight of angle and T iron bars; of 
woods. 

Weights and measures. 

West India Royal Mail Company. 

Whitelaw's experiments on turbiue 
water-wheels. 



NEW LIST OF WORKS. 

THE ENGINEER'S AND CONTRACTOR'S POCKET BOOK. 



19 



White's (Mr., of Cowes) experiments 

on Honduras mahogany. 
Wicksteed's (Thos.) experiments on 

the evaporating power of different 

kinds of coal. 



"Wind-mills ; of air, air in motion, &c. 
Woods. 

Wrought iron, prices of. 
Zinc as a material for use in house- 
building. 



In one Volume 8vo, extra cloth, bound, price 95. 

THE STUDENT'S GUIDE TO THE PRACTICE 

OE DESIGNING, MEASURING, AND VALUING 

ARTIFICERS' WORKS; 

Containing Directions for taking Dimensions, abstracting the same, 
and bringing the Quantities into Bill ; with Tables of Constants, 
and copious memoranda for the Valuation of Labour and Materials 
in the respective trades of Bricklayer and Slater, Carpenter and 
Joiner, Sawyer, Stonemason, Plasterer, Smith and Ironmonger, 
Plumber, Painter and Glazier, Paper-hanger. Thirty-eight plates 
and wood- cuts. 

The Measuring, &c, edited by Edward Dobson, Architect and 
Surveyor. Second Edition, with the additions on Design by 
E. Lacy Garbett, Architect. 

CONTENTS. 



Preliminary Observations on De- 
signing Artificers' Works. 

Preliminary Observations on Mea- 
surement, Valuation, &c. — On mea- 
suring — On rotation therein — On 
abstracting quantities — On valuation 
— On the use of constants of labour. 

BRICKLAYER AND SLATER. 

Design of Brickwork — technical 
terms, &c. 

Foundations — Arches, inverted 
and erect — Window and other aper- 
ture heads — Window jambs — Plates 
and internal cornices — String- 
courses — External cornices — Chim- 
ney shafts — On general improvement 
of brick architecture, especially fe- 
nestration. 

Measurement. 

Of diggers' work — Of brickwork, 
of facings, &c. 

Design of Tiling, and technicalterms. 
Measurement of Tiling — Example 
of the mode of keeping the measuring- 
book for brickwork. 



Abstracting Bricklayers , and Tilers' 
work. 

Example of bill of Bricklayers' and 
Tilers' work. 

Valuation of Bricklayers' work, 
Earthwork, Concrete, &c. 

Table of sizes and weights of vari- 
ous articles — Tables of the numbers 
of bricks or tiles in various works — 
Valuation of Diggers' and Bricklayers' 
labour — Table of Constants for said 
labour. 

Examples of Valuing. 

1. A yard of concrete. — 2. A rod 
of brickwork. — 3. Afoot of facing. — 
4. A yard of paving. — 5. A square of 
tiling. 

Design, Measurement, and Valu- 
ation of Slating. 

CARPENTER AND JOINER. 

Design of Carpentry — technical 
terms, <xc. 

Brestsummers, an abuse : substi- 
tutes for them — Joists, trimmers, 
trimming-joists — Girders, their abuse 



20 



JOHN WEALE'S 



DESIGNING, MEASURING, AND VALUING ARTIFICERS WORKS. 



and right use — Substitutes for girders 
and quarter -partitions — Quarter-par- 
titions — Roof-framing — Great waste 
in present common modes of roof- 
framing — Ta determine the right 
mode of subdividing the weight, and 
the right numbers of bearers for 
leaded roofs — The same for other 
roofs — Principle of the truss — Con- 
siderations that determine its right 
pitch — Internal filling or tracery of 
trusses — Collar-beam trusses — Con- 
nection of the parts of trusses — Vari- 
ations on the truss; right limits 
thereto — To avoid fallacious trussing 
and roof-framing — Delorme's roof- 
ing ; its economy on circular plans — 
Useful property of regular polygonal 
plans — On combinations of roofing, 
hips, and valleys — On gutters, their 
use and abuse — Mansarde or curb- 
roofs. 

Design of Joinery — technical terms, 
&c. 

Modes of finishing and decorating 
panel-work — Design of doors. 

Measurement of Carpenters' and 
Joiners' work — Abbreviations. 

Modes of measuring Carpenters' 
work — Classification of labour when 
measured with the timber — Classifi- 
cation of labour and nails when mea- 
sured separately from the timber. 

Examples of Measurement, arch 
centerings. 

Bracketing to sham entablatures, 
gutters, sound - boarding, chimney- 
grounds, sham plinths, sham pilas- 
ters, floor-boarding, mouldings — 
Doorcases, doors, doorway linings — 
Dado or surbase, its best construc- 
tion — Sashes and sash-frames (ex- 
amples of measurement) — Shutters, 
boxings, and other window fittings 
— Staircases and their fittings. 

Abstracting Carpenters' and Joiners' 
work. 

Example of Bill of Carpenters' and 
Joiners' work. 

Valuation of Carpenters' and Joiners' 
work, Memoranda. 

Tables of numbers and weights. 

Tables of Constants of Labour. 
Roofs, naked floors — Quarter-par- 



titions — Labour on fir, per foot cube 
— Example of the valuation of deals 
or battens — Constants of labour on 
deals, per foot superficial. 

Constants of Labour, and of nails, 
separately. 

On battening, weather boarding — 
Rough boarding, deal floors, batten 
floors. 

Labour and Nails together. 

On grounds, skirtings, gutters, 
doorway-linings — Doors, framed par- 
titions, mouldings — Window-fittings 
— Shutters, sashes and frames, stair- 
cases — Staircase fittings, wall-strings 
— Dados, sham columns and pilasters. 

Valuation of Sawyers' work. 

MASON. 

Design of Stonemasons' work. 
Dr. Robison on Greek and Gothic 
Architecture — Great fallacy in the 
Gothic ornamentation, which led also 
to the modern ' monkey styles ' — 
' Restoration ' and Preservation. 

Measurement of Stonemason's work. 
Example of measuring a spandril 
step, three methods — Allowance for 
labour not seen in finished stone — 
Abbreviations — Specimen of the 
measuring-book — Stairs — Landings 
— Steps — Coping — String-courses — 
Plinths, window-sills, curbs — Co- 
lumns, entablatures, blockings — 
Cornices, renaissance niches. 

Abstracting and Valuation. 

Table of weight of stone — Table 
of Constants of Labour — Example 
of Bill of Masons' work. 

PLASTERER. 

Design of Plaster-work in real 
and mock Architecture. 

Ceilings and their uses — Unne- 
cessary disease and death traced to 
their misconstruction — Sanitary re- 
quirements for a right ceiling — Con- 
ditions to be observed to render do- 
mestic ceilings innoxious- — Ditto, for 
ceilings of public buildings — Bar- 
barous shifts necessitated by wrong 
ceiling — Technical terms in Plas- 
terers' work. 

Measurement of Plaster-work. 



NEW LIST OF WORKS. 



21 



DESIGNING, MEASURING, AND VALUING ARTIFICERS WORKS. 



Abbreviations — Abstracting of 
Plasterers' work — Example of Bill 
of Plasterers' work. 
Valuation. 

Memoranda of quantities of ma- 
terials — Constants of Labour. 

SMITH AND FOUNDER. 
On the Use of Metal-work in 
Architecture. 

Iron not rightly to be used much 
more now than in the middle ages — 
Substitutes for the present extrava- 
gant use of iron — Fire-proof (and 
sanitary) ceiling and flooring — Fire- 
proof roof -framing in brick and iron 
— Another method, applicable to 
hipped roofs — A mode of untrussed 
roof-framing in iron only — A prin- 
ciple for iron trussed roofing on any 
plan or scale — Another variation 
thereof — On the decoration of me- 
tallic architecture. 



Measurement of Smiths' and Foun- 
ders' work. 

PLUMBER, PAINTER, 
GLAZIER, &c. 
Design, &c. of Lead-work. 
Measurement of Paint-work — 
Abbreviations. 

Specimen of the measuring-book 
— Abstract of Paint-work — Example 
of Bill of Paint-work. 
Valuation of Paint-work. 

Constants of Labour — Measure- 
ment and Valuation of Glazing — 
Measurement and Valuation of 
Paper-hanging. 

APPENDIX ON WARMING. 
Modifications of sanitary construction 
to suit the English open fire — 
More economic modes of warming in 
public buildings — Ditto, for private 
ones — Warming by gas. 



In 12mo., price 5s. bound and lettered, 

THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP 
COMPANION, AND THE SCIENTIFIC 

GENTLEMAN'S PRACTICAL ASSISTANT; 

Comprising a great variety of the most useful Rules in Mechanical 
Science, divested of mathematical complexity; with numerous 
Tables of Practical Data and Calculated Results, for facilitating 
Mechanical and Commercial Transactions. 

BY W. TEMPLETON, 

AUTHOR OF SEVERAL SCIENTIFIC WORKS. 

Third edition, with the addition of Mechanical Tables for the use 
of Operative Smiths, Millwrights, and Engineers ; and practical 
directions for the Smelting of Metallic Ores. 



2 vols. 4to, price £ 2. 16s., 

CARPENTRY AND JOINERY; 

Containing 190 Plates ; a work suitable to Carpenters and Builders, 
comprising Elementary and Practical Carpentry, useful to Artificers 
in the Colonies. 



22 



JOHN WEALE'S 



THE AIDE-MEMOIRE TO THE MILITARY 

SCIENCES, 

Framed from Contributions of Officers of the different Services, and 
edited by a Committee of the Corps of Royal Engineers. The 
work is now completed. 

Sold in 3 vols. £ 4. 10s. > extra cloth boards and lettered, or in 6 Parts, as follows ; 

£. s. d. 



Part I. 


A. tO D., NEW EDITION 


. 14 





II. 


D. to F. 


. 16 





III. 


F. to M. 


. 16 





IV. 


M. to P. . 


. 14 





V. 


P. to R. 


. 16 





VI. 


R. to Z. 


. 1 







£4 16 






In 1 large Volume, with numerous Tables, Engravings, and Cuts, 

A TEXT BOOK 

For Agents, Estate Agents, Stewards, and Private Gentlemen, 
generally, in connection with Valuing, Surveying, Building, 
Letting and Leasing, Setting out, disposing, and particularly 
describing all kinds of Property, whether it be Land or Personal 
Property. Useful to 
Auctioneers Assurance Companies Landed Proprietors 

Appraisers Builders Stewards 

Agriculturists Civil Engineers Surveyors 

Architects Estate Agents Valuers, &c. 



In 1 vol. large 8vo, with 13 Plates, price One Guinea, in half -morocco binding, 

MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN: 

Being a Common -Place Book of PURE AND MIXED MATHE- 
MATICS ; together with the Elementary Principles of Engineering; 
designed chiefly for the use of Civil Engineers, Architects, and 
Surveyors. 

BY OLINTHUS GREGORY, LL.D., F.R.A.S. 
Third Edition, revised and enlarged by HENRY LAW, Civil Engineer. 



PART L- 

CHAPTER I. ARITHMETIC. 

Sect. 

1. Definitions and notation. 

2. Addition of whole numbers. 

3. Subtraction of whole numbers. 

4. Multiplication of whole numbers. 



CONTENTS. 

PURE MATHEMATICS. 

Sect. 

5. Division of whole numbers. — 
Proof of the first four rules of 
Arithmetic. 

6. Vulgar fractions. — Reduction of 
vulgar fractions. — Addition and 



NEW LIST OF WORKS. 



23 



MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN. 



Sect. 

subtraction of vulgar fractions. 
— Multiplication and division 
of vulgar fractions. 

7. Decimal fractions. — Reduction of 

decimals. — Addition and sub- 
traction of decimals. — Multipli- 
cation and division of decimals. 

8. Complex fractions used in the arts 

and commerce. — Reduction. — 
Addition. — Subtraction and 
multiplication. — Division. — 
Duodecimals. 

9. Powers and roots. — Evolution. 

10. Proportion. — Rule of Three.— De- 

termination of ratios. 

11. Logarithmic arithmetic. — Use of 

the Tables. — Multiplication and 
division by logarithms. — Pro- 
portion, or the Rule of Three, 
by logarithms. — Evolution and 
involution by logarithms. 

12. Properties of numbers. 

CHAPTER II. ALGEBRA. 

1. Definitions and notation. — 2. Ad- 
dition and subtraction. — 3. Mul- 
tiplication. — 4. Division. — 5. In- 
volution. — 6. Evolution. — 7. 
Surds. — Reduction. — Addition, 
subtraction, and multiplication. 
— Division, involution, and evo- 
lution. — 8. Simple equations. — 
Extermination. — Solution of 
general problems. — 9. Quadratic 
equations. — 10. Equations in 
general. — 11. Progression. — 
Arithmetical progression. — Geo- 
metrical progression. — 12. Frac- 
tional and negative exponents. — 
13. Logarithms. — 14. Computa- 
tion of formulae. 

CHAPTER III. GEOMETRY. 

1. Definitions. — 2. Of angles, and 
right lines, and their rectangles. 

PART II.— MIXED 

CHAPTER I. — MECHANICS IN GENERAL. 
CHAPTER II. STATICS. 

1. Statical equilibrium. 

2. Centre of gravity. 

3. General application of the princi- 

ples of statics to the equilibrium 



Sect, 

— 3. Of triangles. --4. Of qua- 
drilaterals and polygons. — 5. Of 
the circle, and inscribed and cir- 
cumscribed figures. — 6. Of plans 
and solids. — 7. Practical geo- 
metry. 

CHAPTER IV. — MENSURATION. 

1. Weights and measures. — 1. Mea- 

sures of length. — 2. Measures 
of surface. — 3. Measures of so- 
lidity and capacity. — 4. Mea- 
sures of weight. — 5. Angular 
measure. — 6. Measure of time. 

— Comparison of English and 
French weights and measures. 

2. Mensuration of superficies. 

3. Mensuration of solids. 

CHAPTER V. TRIGONOMETRY. 

1. Definitions and trigonometrical 
formulae. — 2. Trigonometrical 
Tables. — 3. General proposi- 
tions. — 4. Solution of the cases 
of plane triangles. — Right-an- 
gled plane triangles. — 5. On the 
application of trigonometry to 
measuring heights and distances. 
— Determination of heights and 
distances by approximate me- 
chanical methods. 

CHAPTER VI. CONIC SECTIONS. 

1. Definitions. — 2. Properties of the 
ellipse. — 3. Properties of the hy- 
perbola. — 4. Properties of the 
parabola. 

CHAPTER VII. PROPERTIES OF 

CURVES. 

1. Definitions. — 2. The conchoid. — 
3. The cissoid. — 4. The cycloid 
and epicycloid. — 5. The quadra- 
trix. — 6. The catenary. — Rela- 
tions of Catenarian Curves. 

MATHEMATICS. 

of structures. — Equilibrium of 
piers or abutments. — Pressure 
of earth against walls. — Thick- 
ness of walls. — Equilibrium of 
polygons.- — Stability of arches. 

— Equilibrium of suspension 
bridges. 



24 JOHN WEALED NEW LIST OF WORKS. 



MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN. 



Sect. 

CHAPTER III. — DYNAMICS. 

1. General Definitions. 

2. On the general laws of uniform 

and variable motion. — Motion 
uniformly accelerated. — Motion 
of bodies under the action of 
gravity. — Motion over a fixed 
pulley, and on inclined planes. 

3. Motions about a fixed centre, or 

axis. — Centres of oscillation and 
percussion. — Simple and com- 
pound pendulums. — Centre of 
gyration, and the principles of 
rotation. — Central forces. 

4. Percussion or collision of bodies 

in motion. 

5. Mechanical powers. — Levers. — 

Wheel & axle. — Pulley. — In- 
clined plane. — Wedge and screw. 

CHAPTER IV. HYDROSTATICS. 

1. General Definitions. — 2. Pressure 
and equilibrium of Non-elastic 
Fluids. — 3. Floating Bodies. — 
4. Specific gravities. — 5. On 
capillary attraction. 

CHAPTER V. HYDRODYNAMICS. 

1. Motion and effluence of liquids. 

2. Motion of water in conduit pipes 

and open canals, over weirs, 
&c. — Velocities of rivers. 

3. Contrivances to measure the velo- 

city of running waters. 

CHAPTER VI. PNEUMATICS. 

1. Weight and equilibrium of air and 

elastic fluids. 

2. Machines for raising water by 

the pressure of the atmosphere. 

3. Force of the wind. 



Sect. 

CHAPTER VII. MECHANICAL AGENTS. 

1. Water as a mechanical agent. 

2. Air as a mechanical agent. — Cou- 

lomb's experiments. 

3. Mechanical agents depending upon 

heat. The Steam Engine. — 
Table of Pressure and Tempera- 
ture of Steam. — General de- 
scription of the mode of action 
of the steam engine. — Theory 
of the same. — Description of 
various engines, and formulae for 
calculating their power: pucti- 
cal application. 

4. Animal strength as a mechanical 

agent. 

CHAPTER VIII. STRENGTH OF 

MATERIALS. 

1. Results of experiments, and prin- 

ciples upon which they should 
be practically applied. 

2. Strength of materials to resist 

tensile and crushing strains. — - 
Strength of columns. 

3. Elasticity and elongation of bodies 

subjected to a crushing or ten- 
sile strain. 

4. On the strength of materials sub- 

jected to a transverse strain. — » 
Longitudinal form of beam of 
uniform strength. — Transverse 
strength of other materials than 
cast iron. — The strength of 
beams according to the manner 
in which the load is distributed. 

5. Elasticity of bodies subjected to a 

transverse strain. 

6. Strength of materials to resist 

torsion. 



APPENDIX. 

I. Table of Logarithmic Differences. 
II. Table of Logarithms of Numbers, from 1 to 100. 

III. Table of Logarithms of Numbers, from 100 to 10,000. 

IV. Table of Logarithmic Sines, Tangents, Secants, &c. 

V. Table of Useful Factors, extending to several places of Decimals. 
VI. Table of various Useful Numbers, with their Logarithms. 
VII. Table of Diameters, Areas, and Circumferences of Circles, &c. 
VIII. Table of Relations of the Arc, Abscissa, Ordinate and Subnormal, in the Catenary* 
IX. Tables of the Lengths and Vibrations of Pendulums. 
X. Table of Specific Gravities. 

XI. Table of Weight of Materials frequently employed in Construction. 
XII. Principles of Chronometers. 

XIII. Select Mechanical Expedients. 

XIV. Observations on the Effect of Old London Bridge on the Tides, &c. 
XV. Professor Farish on Isometrical Perspective. 



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